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Dating the ecumenical council of Nicaea - the Easter Issue
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Dating the ecumenical council of Nicaea - the Easter Issue
Articolul in limba engleza semnat G. Nosovsky nu se mai poate accesa pe internet (nici macar pe web archive), de aceea cred ca este cel mai bine sa-l postez aici, sub forma de documentatie, unul dintre cele mai interesante lucrari publicate din domeniul datarii si cronologiei istorice.
EASTER ISSUE
By Dr Gleb Nosovsky
This article comes from future volume six of the “History: Fiction or Science?” series.
Easter, also known as Pascha, the Feast of the Resurrection, the Sunday of the Resurrection, or Resurrection Day, is the most important religious feast of the Christianity, observed between late March and late April by the Western and early April to early May in Eastern Christianity.
It is assumed that the First Ecumenical Nicaean Council (Nicaea is a town in Bythinia, Asia Minor) had compiled and sanctioned a church calendar in the year 325 AD. The Christian church has deemed this Easter Book (in the West), also known as Paschalia (in the East), to be of the greatest importance ever since.
Research of the Easter Book or Paschalia (Byzantine rite) done by prominent mathematician Academician Dr Prof Anatoly Fomenko and his team (Moscow State University) presented in this paper proves that Nicean council definitely could not have taken place before 784 AD. Some related questions may arise: when and where was Jesus Christ born, when was He crucified? Was The Old Testament compiled before or after the New One? Look for answers in “History: Fiction or Science?” series, ISBN 2913621074.
INTRODUCTION
The British Encyclopaedia names Joseph Justus Scaliger (1540-1609) and his follower Dionysius Petavius (1583 – 1652) as the founders of consensual chronology. This chronology stands on two pillars – the date of Jesus Christ’s Nativity and the date of the First Ecumenical Council in Nicaea, which is usually referred to as “The Nicaean Council”.
Scaliger’s version of chronology is based on the datings of Christ’s birth and the First Ecumenical Council in Nicaea to a great extent, since it was primarily compiled as that of ecclesial history. Secular chronology of the ancient times was represented in his works as derivative, based on synchronisms with ecclesial events.
We shall give here a detailed account of why one of these ground laying dates, that is the date of the First Ecumenical Council in Nicaea is definitely wrong.
The principal method of the research we are relating here is that of computational astronomy. However, the understanding of the issue does not require a profound knowledge of astronomy or other special scientific issues.
The founder of chronology Joseph Justus Scaliger considered himself a great mathematician. Pity, but his demonstrations were quite wrong – for instance, he boasted that he had solved the classical “ancient” mathematical ‘Quadrature of Circle’ problem that was subsequently proven insoluble.
Calendarian issues are a part of chronology. The chronology belonged to the paradigm of mathematics and astronomy. This was the case in the XVI-XVII centuries, when the consensual Scaliger-Petavius version of chronology was created.
Since then, the perception of chronology has changed, and in the XVIII century already, chronology was considered humanity. As its essence cannot be changed, it remains a subdivision of applied mathematics to this day.
The historians are supposed to concern themselves with chronology. However, without a sufficient mathematical education – and in the case of chronological studies, sufficient means fundamental – the historians are forced to evade the solution and even the discussion of the rather complex chronological issues.
Every historical oddness and contradiction becomes carefully concealed from the public attention; in dangerous and slippery places the historians put on a “professional” mien, saying that “everything is really okay” and they shall “give you a full explanation” later on.
WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT THE NICAEAN COUNCIL TODAY
No deeds or acts of this Council have reached our time, but the historians report: “...the opuses of St. Athanasius of Alexandria, Socrates, Eusebius of Caesarea, Sozomenus, Theodoritus, and Rufinus contain enough details for us to get a good idea of the Council together with the 20 rules and the Council’s vigil… The Emperor (Constantine the Great – Auth.) arrived in Nicaea on the 4th or the 5th of July, and the next day the Council was called in the great hall of the Emperor’s palace… the council had solved the problem of determining the time of Easter celebration… and set forth the 20 rules… After the Council, the Emperor had issued a decree for convincing everyone to adhere to the confession proclaimed by the council.”
[988], tome 41, pages 71-72.
It is thus assumed that together with the proclamation of the united Orthodox-Catholic confession that got split up later, the Nicaean council had also determined the way Easter should be celebrated, or, in other words, developed the Paschalia Easter Book.
Despite the fact that no original Easter edicts of the Nicaean council remain, it is said that the Council issued its edicts in the alleged year 325 AD, when the “the actual methods of calculating the Easter dates had already been well developed”, and the Easter date table “that had been used for centuries” had been compiled. The latter is quite natural, since “every 532 years, the Christian Easter cycle repeats from the very start… the Paschalian tables for each year of 532 were in existence” [817], page 4.
Thus, the calculation of the new 532-year Easter table really comes down to a simple shift of the previous one by 532 years. This order is still valid: the last Great Indiction began in 1941 and is the shifted version of the previous Great Indiction (of the years 1409-1940), which, in its turn, is derived from the Great Indiction of the years 977-1408, etc. So, when we move the modern Easter table by an applicable factor divisible by 532, we should get exactly the same table as was introduced by the Nicaean council.
Ergo, the primary form of the Paschalia Easter Book can be easily reconstructed, and we will show the reader how earliest possible date of compilation of Paschalia Easter Book can be deduced from it.
THE NICAEAN COUNCIL AND THE PASCHALIA EASTER BOOK
The ecclesial Paschalia consists of two parts – the static part and the mobile part. The static part of the church calendar is the regular civil calendar also known as the Julian calendar, since its compilation is often linked to the name of Julius Caesar. The Julian year consists of 12 months, and every fourth year an additional day is added – the 29th of February. Such years are called leap years.
It is possible that some of the readers remain unaware of how closely the Julian calendar is related to the Christian divine service. The so-called static holidays of the Christian church are all distributed along the Julian calendar dates. We call them static since they fall on the same day of the same month of the Julian calendar every year.
The mobile part of the church calendar determines the dates for the Easter Sunday and several other church feasts counted from Easter, such as, The Ascension of the Lord, The Holy Trinity, and the beginning of St. Peter’s Lent. The ecclesial week count also belongs to the mobile part of the church calendar.
The count begins with the Easter Sunday; the week number is important since it determines the daily service order. Easter Sunday and the holidays that have their dates dependent on it are called mobile since their position in the Julian calendar varies from year to year.
The Paschalia Rule that determines the date for the annual advent of Easter is a rather complex one and relates very closely to a number of astronomical concepts that we shall cover below.
We shall be referring to the combination of the static and the mobile part as The Paschalia Easter Book, or simply, The Paschalia, bearing in mind that apart from the rule that determines the correct date for Easter, it also contains the regular Julian calendar that serves as the framework that this rule is valid for.
THE PASCHALIA EASTER BOOK
We see a variety of voluminous tables that determine the correlations between a large number of calendarian and astronomical units related to the Julian calendar. Such units as described in the Paschalia serve the internal framework of the Julian calendar as well as its correlation with various astronomical phenomena.
Among them we can find such concepts as indiction, Circle for Sun, Circle for Moon, epact, base, alpha key, boundary key, vrutseleto [an old Slavic manual calendar system, literally “Year in one’s hand”], etc.
One of the tables of the Paschalia allows us to determine the Easter celebration day for any given year. The table data can be accessed via the so-called boundary key of the year in question, one that has to be determined in advance from other tables of the Paschalia [701].
An important factor is that the Paschalia is based on the assumption that the calendar indices used for calculating the Easter date recur in precisely the same manner every 532 years. This cycle of 532 years is called The Great Indiction in the Julian calendar, and it devises the recurrence of Easter, as well as the indiction, the Circle for Sun, and the Circle for Moon values, mentioned below.
The complete Easter tables include a vast array of assorted calendarian information for the entire Great Indiction of 532 years [701]. The beginning of the “first” Great Indiction coincides with the beginning of the Byzantine era “since Adam”, or “since Genesis”, and this is not a chance coincidence. The last Great Indiction started in 1941 and still continues. The previous one commenced in 1409 AD; the previous one – in 877 AD, etc., [701], [393].
THE EASTER CYCLES: THE CIRCLE FOR SUN AND THE CIRCLE FOR MOON
We shall start with the Circle for Moon, or “Methon’s Cycle”, as it is also called. Easter calculations require the knowledge of the day in either March or April of the year in question that the full moon falls upon.
We don’t have to observe the sky or perform astronomical calculations every time; compiling a table of March and April full moons for any given period of 19 years should suffice for further reference. The reason is that the phases of the moon recur every 19 years in the Julian calendar, and the recurrence cycle remains unaltered for centuries on end – that is, if the full moon fell on the 25th March any given year, it shall occur on the 25th of March in 19 years, in 38 (19 x 2) years, etc.
The malfunctions in the cycle shall begin after 300 years, which is to say that if we cover 300 years in 19-year cycles, the full moon shall gradually begin to migrate to its neighbouring location in the calendar. The same applies to new moons and all the other phases of the moon.
This way, if we mark any day of either March or April in the Julian calendar and perform annual observations of the lunar phase that coincides with it, we shall discover that the lunar phases that fall on this day change over a cycle of 19 years. This cycle is called the Circle for Moon.
The Paschalia contains a table that gives one the phase of the moon for any given day of any given year, compiled for a sequence of 19 years and containing 19 cells. Its every cell contains two numbers – the order number for each one of these 19 years, and the correspondent date of the first full moon after the 21st of March.
This order number is the actual Circle value, and is given a single definition for every year. The Paschalia tables give the Circle value for any year of the current indiction. It can be easily calculated for any other year, since the Circle for Moon repeats itself every 19 years.
The Latin version of the Paschalia (Easter Book) uses the so-called Gold Number (numerus aureus) [393], page 75. It is the same cycle of 19 years, but one that was commenced in a different year – namely, the Western European cycle of Gold Numbers exceeds the Russian and Byzantine Circle for Moon by a quotient of 3, so if the Circle value of a given year equals 1, the corresponding Gold Number will equal 4, see [393], page 76.
It is assumed that these lunation cycles were discovered by the “ancient” Greek astronomer Methon, in the alleged year 432 BC ([704], page 461). The very dating of Methon’s discovery 432 BC – that is, making it precede the existence of the Julian calendar where it is contained by several centuries – is another obvious blunder of Scaliger’s chronology.
The Circle for Sun, unlike the Circle for Moon, bears no direct relation to any astronomical phenomena, and, particularly, has nothing to do with solar observations. The name, Circle for Sun, is a rather arbitrary one, since this cycle is purely calendarian.
The Circle for Sun is a 28-year cycle of weekday recurrence in the Julian calendar. Let us explain that the days of the week may recur in calendar dates over a smaller period than 28 years, as one may observe perusing the calendars that are several years old. As a rule, one may pick a calendar more recent than 28 years that coincides with that of the current year. However, the minimal number of years when the calendar of any Julian year will recur in its entirety is 28.
The Circle for Sun for a given year in the Paschalia is represented as a number in a cycle of 28. Every year is assigned a number in a cycle of 28 (1 to 28). Each one of those numbers, in its turn, corresponds to a rather clearly defined calendar table of weekdays corresponding to month numbers. As is the case with the Circle for Moon, the Circle for Sun is given directly by the Easter tables for every year of the current 532-year indiction. It can be computed for all the other years since it recurs every 28 years.
The Circle for Sun is used in the Easter calculations in order to find out whether a given day in the month is a Sunday for a given year, which is important since Easter can only happen on a Sunday. This is one of the rules to determine the Easter, qv below.
Since every fourth year in the Julian calendar is a leap year, the cycle of regular years and leap years equals 4, that is, every 4 years contains exactly 3 regular years and 1 leap year, so the number containing the minimal amounts of both that are divisible by 7 is 28 (7 x 4 = 28). Indeed, every 28-year period will contain 21 (7 x 3) regular years, and 7 (7 x 1) leap years. A smaller amount of years may contain a number of either regular or leap years (or both) that is not divisible by seven; hence 28 is the number of the week day recurrence cycle, or the Circle for Sun size.
The Circle for Moon and the Circle for Sun can also be calculated with the use of the following simple rule. We have to take the number of the year in the Byzantine chronology since Adam, and find the remainders resulting from the division by 19 and by 28. These will be the Circle for Moon and the Circle for Sun values of the current year. Hence, the first year since Adam of the Byzantine era had both of those values equal 1 (see also [393], page 78).
EASTER ISSUE
By Dr Gleb Nosovsky
This article comes from future volume six of the “History: Fiction or Science?” series.
Easter, also known as Pascha, the Feast of the Resurrection, the Sunday of the Resurrection, or Resurrection Day, is the most important religious feast of the Christianity, observed between late March and late April by the Western and early April to early May in Eastern Christianity.
It is assumed that the First Ecumenical Nicaean Council (Nicaea is a town in Bythinia, Asia Minor) had compiled and sanctioned a church calendar in the year 325 AD. The Christian church has deemed this Easter Book (in the West), also known as Paschalia (in the East), to be of the greatest importance ever since.
Research of the Easter Book or Paschalia (Byzantine rite) done by prominent mathematician Academician Dr Prof Anatoly Fomenko and his team (Moscow State University) presented in this paper proves that Nicean council definitely could not have taken place before 784 AD. Some related questions may arise: when and where was Jesus Christ born, when was He crucified? Was The Old Testament compiled before or after the New One? Look for answers in “History: Fiction or Science?” series, ISBN 2913621074.
INTRODUCTION
The British Encyclopaedia names Joseph Justus Scaliger (1540-1609) and his follower Dionysius Petavius (1583 – 1652) as the founders of consensual chronology. This chronology stands on two pillars – the date of Jesus Christ’s Nativity and the date of the First Ecumenical Council in Nicaea, which is usually referred to as “The Nicaean Council”.
Scaliger’s version of chronology is based on the datings of Christ’s birth and the First Ecumenical Council in Nicaea to a great extent, since it was primarily compiled as that of ecclesial history. Secular chronology of the ancient times was represented in his works as derivative, based on synchronisms with ecclesial events.
We shall give here a detailed account of why one of these ground laying dates, that is the date of the First Ecumenical Council in Nicaea is definitely wrong.
The principal method of the research we are relating here is that of computational astronomy. However, the understanding of the issue does not require a profound knowledge of astronomy or other special scientific issues.
The founder of chronology Joseph Justus Scaliger considered himself a great mathematician. Pity, but his demonstrations were quite wrong – for instance, he boasted that he had solved the classical “ancient” mathematical ‘Quadrature of Circle’ problem that was subsequently proven insoluble.
Calendarian issues are a part of chronology. The chronology belonged to the paradigm of mathematics and astronomy. This was the case in the XVI-XVII centuries, when the consensual Scaliger-Petavius version of chronology was created.
Since then, the perception of chronology has changed, and in the XVIII century already, chronology was considered humanity. As its essence cannot be changed, it remains a subdivision of applied mathematics to this day.
The historians are supposed to concern themselves with chronology. However, without a sufficient mathematical education – and in the case of chronological studies, sufficient means fundamental – the historians are forced to evade the solution and even the discussion of the rather complex chronological issues.
Every historical oddness and contradiction becomes carefully concealed from the public attention; in dangerous and slippery places the historians put on a “professional” mien, saying that “everything is really okay” and they shall “give you a full explanation” later on.
WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT THE NICAEAN COUNCIL TODAY
No deeds or acts of this Council have reached our time, but the historians report: “...the opuses of St. Athanasius of Alexandria, Socrates, Eusebius of Caesarea, Sozomenus, Theodoritus, and Rufinus contain enough details for us to get a good idea of the Council together with the 20 rules and the Council’s vigil… The Emperor (Constantine the Great – Auth.) arrived in Nicaea on the 4th or the 5th of July, and the next day the Council was called in the great hall of the Emperor’s palace… the council had solved the problem of determining the time of Easter celebration… and set forth the 20 rules… After the Council, the Emperor had issued a decree for convincing everyone to adhere to the confession proclaimed by the council.”
[988], tome 41, pages 71-72.
It is thus assumed that together with the proclamation of the united Orthodox-Catholic confession that got split up later, the Nicaean council had also determined the way Easter should be celebrated, or, in other words, developed the Paschalia Easter Book.
Despite the fact that no original Easter edicts of the Nicaean council remain, it is said that the Council issued its edicts in the alleged year 325 AD, when the “the actual methods of calculating the Easter dates had already been well developed”, and the Easter date table “that had been used for centuries” had been compiled. The latter is quite natural, since “every 532 years, the Christian Easter cycle repeats from the very start… the Paschalian tables for each year of 532 were in existence” [817], page 4.
Thus, the calculation of the new 532-year Easter table really comes down to a simple shift of the previous one by 532 years. This order is still valid: the last Great Indiction began in 1941 and is the shifted version of the previous Great Indiction (of the years 1409-1940), which, in its turn, is derived from the Great Indiction of the years 977-1408, etc. So, when we move the modern Easter table by an applicable factor divisible by 532, we should get exactly the same table as was introduced by the Nicaean council.
Ergo, the primary form of the Paschalia Easter Book can be easily reconstructed, and we will show the reader how earliest possible date of compilation of Paschalia Easter Book can be deduced from it.
THE NICAEAN COUNCIL AND THE PASCHALIA EASTER BOOK
The ecclesial Paschalia consists of two parts – the static part and the mobile part. The static part of the church calendar is the regular civil calendar also known as the Julian calendar, since its compilation is often linked to the name of Julius Caesar. The Julian year consists of 12 months, and every fourth year an additional day is added – the 29th of February. Such years are called leap years.
It is possible that some of the readers remain unaware of how closely the Julian calendar is related to the Christian divine service. The so-called static holidays of the Christian church are all distributed along the Julian calendar dates. We call them static since they fall on the same day of the same month of the Julian calendar every year.
The mobile part of the church calendar determines the dates for the Easter Sunday and several other church feasts counted from Easter, such as, The Ascension of the Lord, The Holy Trinity, and the beginning of St. Peter’s Lent. The ecclesial week count also belongs to the mobile part of the church calendar.
The count begins with the Easter Sunday; the week number is important since it determines the daily service order. Easter Sunday and the holidays that have their dates dependent on it are called mobile since their position in the Julian calendar varies from year to year.
The Paschalia Rule that determines the date for the annual advent of Easter is a rather complex one and relates very closely to a number of astronomical concepts that we shall cover below.
We shall be referring to the combination of the static and the mobile part as The Paschalia Easter Book, or simply, The Paschalia, bearing in mind that apart from the rule that determines the correct date for Easter, it also contains the regular Julian calendar that serves as the framework that this rule is valid for.
THE PASCHALIA EASTER BOOK
We see a variety of voluminous tables that determine the correlations between a large number of calendarian and astronomical units related to the Julian calendar. Such units as described in the Paschalia serve the internal framework of the Julian calendar as well as its correlation with various astronomical phenomena.
Among them we can find such concepts as indiction, Circle for Sun, Circle for Moon, epact, base, alpha key, boundary key, vrutseleto [an old Slavic manual calendar system, literally “Year in one’s hand”], etc.
One of the tables of the Paschalia allows us to determine the Easter celebration day for any given year. The table data can be accessed via the so-called boundary key of the year in question, one that has to be determined in advance from other tables of the Paschalia [701].
An important factor is that the Paschalia is based on the assumption that the calendar indices used for calculating the Easter date recur in precisely the same manner every 532 years. This cycle of 532 years is called The Great Indiction in the Julian calendar, and it devises the recurrence of Easter, as well as the indiction, the Circle for Sun, and the Circle for Moon values, mentioned below.
The complete Easter tables include a vast array of assorted calendarian information for the entire Great Indiction of 532 years [701]. The beginning of the “first” Great Indiction coincides with the beginning of the Byzantine era “since Adam”, or “since Genesis”, and this is not a chance coincidence. The last Great Indiction started in 1941 and still continues. The previous one commenced in 1409 AD; the previous one – in 877 AD, etc., [701], [393].
THE EASTER CYCLES: THE CIRCLE FOR SUN AND THE CIRCLE FOR MOON
We shall start with the Circle for Moon, or “Methon’s Cycle”, as it is also called. Easter calculations require the knowledge of the day in either March or April of the year in question that the full moon falls upon.
We don’t have to observe the sky or perform astronomical calculations every time; compiling a table of March and April full moons for any given period of 19 years should suffice for further reference. The reason is that the phases of the moon recur every 19 years in the Julian calendar, and the recurrence cycle remains unaltered for centuries on end – that is, if the full moon fell on the 25th March any given year, it shall occur on the 25th of March in 19 years, in 38 (19 x 2) years, etc.
The malfunctions in the cycle shall begin after 300 years, which is to say that if we cover 300 years in 19-year cycles, the full moon shall gradually begin to migrate to its neighbouring location in the calendar. The same applies to new moons and all the other phases of the moon.
This way, if we mark any day of either March or April in the Julian calendar and perform annual observations of the lunar phase that coincides with it, we shall discover that the lunar phases that fall on this day change over a cycle of 19 years. This cycle is called the Circle for Moon.
The Paschalia contains a table that gives one the phase of the moon for any given day of any given year, compiled for a sequence of 19 years and containing 19 cells. Its every cell contains two numbers – the order number for each one of these 19 years, and the correspondent date of the first full moon after the 21st of March.
This order number is the actual Circle value, and is given a single definition for every year. The Paschalia tables give the Circle value for any year of the current indiction. It can be easily calculated for any other year, since the Circle for Moon repeats itself every 19 years.
The Latin version of the Paschalia (Easter Book) uses the so-called Gold Number (numerus aureus) [393], page 75. It is the same cycle of 19 years, but one that was commenced in a different year – namely, the Western European cycle of Gold Numbers exceeds the Russian and Byzantine Circle for Moon by a quotient of 3, so if the Circle value of a given year equals 1, the corresponding Gold Number will equal 4, see [393], page 76.
It is assumed that these lunation cycles were discovered by the “ancient” Greek astronomer Methon, in the alleged year 432 BC ([704], page 461). The very dating of Methon’s discovery 432 BC – that is, making it precede the existence of the Julian calendar where it is contained by several centuries – is another obvious blunder of Scaliger’s chronology.
The Circle for Sun, unlike the Circle for Moon, bears no direct relation to any astronomical phenomena, and, particularly, has nothing to do with solar observations. The name, Circle for Sun, is a rather arbitrary one, since this cycle is purely calendarian.
The Circle for Sun is a 28-year cycle of weekday recurrence in the Julian calendar. Let us explain that the days of the week may recur in calendar dates over a smaller period than 28 years, as one may observe perusing the calendars that are several years old. As a rule, one may pick a calendar more recent than 28 years that coincides with that of the current year. However, the minimal number of years when the calendar of any Julian year will recur in its entirety is 28.
The Circle for Sun for a given year in the Paschalia is represented as a number in a cycle of 28. Every year is assigned a number in a cycle of 28 (1 to 28). Each one of those numbers, in its turn, corresponds to a rather clearly defined calendar table of weekdays corresponding to month numbers. As is the case with the Circle for Moon, the Circle for Sun is given directly by the Easter tables for every year of the current 532-year indiction. It can be computed for all the other years since it recurs every 28 years.
The Circle for Sun is used in the Easter calculations in order to find out whether a given day in the month is a Sunday for a given year, which is important since Easter can only happen on a Sunday. This is one of the rules to determine the Easter, qv below.
Since every fourth year in the Julian calendar is a leap year, the cycle of regular years and leap years equals 4, that is, every 4 years contains exactly 3 regular years and 1 leap year, so the number containing the minimal amounts of both that are divisible by 7 is 28 (7 x 4 = 28). Indeed, every 28-year period will contain 21 (7 x 3) regular years, and 7 (7 x 1) leap years. A smaller amount of years may contain a number of either regular or leap years (or both) that is not divisible by seven; hence 28 is the number of the week day recurrence cycle, or the Circle for Sun size.
The Circle for Moon and the Circle for Sun can also be calculated with the use of the following simple rule. We have to take the number of the year in the Byzantine chronology since Adam, and find the remainders resulting from the division by 19 and by 28. These will be the Circle for Moon and the Circle for Sun values of the current year. Hence, the first year since Adam of the Byzantine era had both of those values equal 1 (see also [393], page 78).
Ultima editare efectuata de catre sandokhan in Dum 27 Noi 2011, 18:46, editata de 1 ori
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Re: Dating the ecumenical council of Nicaea - the Easter Issue
THE OLD INDICTION CHRONOLOGY
Since we’re mentioning Easter cycles, let us make some observations that concern the entire historical chronology and not just the dating of the Nicaean council. Today we have become so used to the same invariable chronological scale and era, that we simply lack the awareness of there being nothing simple or self-explanatory about this chronological method. When we use a four-digit number for referring to the current year, we aren’t really aware of just how excessive the everyday use of such a large number is.
We spend about ten years at school, and as a result, get more or less used to large numbers. They don’t frighten us anymore – however, this wasn’t the case in the days of yore when the very concept of large numbers and the ability to write them down were a privilege of educated people. Even today we often omit the first two figures when we refer to years – we say and write ’98 instead of 1998, ’99 instead of 1999, etc.
It isn’t hard to realize that during the immutable era chronology wasn’t, and couldn’t possibly have been, the primordial, original method of referring to dates. The overwhelming majority of mediaeval people would simply have been unable to understand it, and a chronology that’s only understood by a small number of educated people makes no sense whatsoever. More specifically, such a method could have been used in a special context, in ancient astronomical tractates, for instance.
But its use would already be impossible in the context of chronicles, since they had to be comprehensible by everyone or nearly everyone. Unlike astronomical rules and observations, past events have always been of interest to rulers and governors, whose deeds were described in chronicles along with those of their predecessors.
The rulers didn’t need to possess special scientific knowledge - moreover, in the Middle Ages they have occasionally been illiterate. The chronicle dates had to be understood by the rulers’ scribes, the monks in monasteries, etc. This meant that the way of referring to dates in chronicles had to correspond to everyday chronology used by the masses – which still is the case in our day.
The inability of the masses of ancient and mediaeval people to handle large numbers can be well illustrated by the history of monetary values. It is known that monetary units in the Middle Ages were much larger than today, and the sums that they operated with were significantly smaller, respectively.
The vast majority of the mediaeval people could not handle large sums of money, due to their inability to handle large numbers. Ergo, they couldn’t handle large numbers in chronology, either, which means they could not have used one based on an immutable era. Such chronology could only develop on a rather high stage of the development of human knowledge.
Apparently, resorting to the immutable era chronology was, by and large, a measure taken out of barest necessity when humanity got into a real quandary regarding what concerned the events of the distant past and their chronology. What we perceive as natural and easy nowadays is a result of habit – one that has been developing for several centuries.
We are thus confronted with a very important question of how the really old documents could represent the dates in written form – the originals, not the forgeries or re-editions of the XVII century.
The answer is well known. One of the most frequently used methods was the count of years since the beginning of a ruler’s reign. It was widely used in ancient times and in the Middle Ages, and is still employed in Japan, for instance, where the count of years begins with the first year of the Emperor’s reign.
This fashion is of little use chronologically speaking if the years of a king’s reign as given in ancient chronicles are long forgotten – so the comprehension of such a date requires translating the years of a king’s reign into the language of modern chronology, possibly comparing them to those of well-known and well-dated ancient kings. It can’t always be done securely and positively, and it requires a large number of these “known and dated kings”.
Despite its simplicity, the method of counting years since the beginning of a king’s reign contains a number of impracticalities. For instance, every change of reign induces a shift in the year number, and a random one at that. Tracing such chronology, even a mere 50-100 years back, may already be a complex task, since it may involve calculating how many years have passed since the third year of the second king preceding the last one.
This involves recollecting the years of the last couple of reigns and their sequence, which may not be very convenient in quotidian use. Apart from that, one has to consider the fact that during political turmoil and frequent ruler changes, such “chronology” stops functioning altogether.
This is why old chronicles had another method of counting years; a much more sophisticated one. This method didn’t require the knowledge of large numbers, but it also did not depend on the names and reigns of kings and provided for a much smoother count of years, without any sudden shifts or leaps. It could also serve for a long time – theoretically, a span of about eight thousand years could be covered.
This method is very closely related to the clerical Paschalia and the Julian calendar. Let us refer to it as the indiction method, or one of counting years by indictions. Let us elaborate on that.
The year number wasn’t given as one large number, the way it is today, but rather a sequence of three small numbers. These numbers had their own names – the indiction, the Circle for Sun, and the Circle for Moon. Each one of them grew by a quotient of 1 every year, but would return to its minimal value upon reaching its maximal. That is to say, it got back to one, and would then start growing by a quotient of one every year yet again.
Thus, instead one theoretically infinite year counter that we use today, the indiction method involved three finite cyclical counters and referred to the year as to a series of small numbers, each one of which had to contain itself within its specific boundaries. Those were:
- the indiction that grew from 1 to 15 and then got thrown back to 1;
- the Circle for Sun that grew from 1 to 28 and then got thrown back to 28;
- The Circle for Moon that grew from 1 to 19 and then got thrown back to 1.
A scribe that used the indiction chronology could write, “This event happened in the 14th indiction, the Circle for Sun equalling 16, and the Circle for Moon equalling 19. The next year something else happened in the 15th indiction, with the Circle for Sun equalling 17, and the Circle for Moon equalling 1. The year after that the following had happened, and it took place in the 1st indiction, with the Circle for Sun equalling 18, and the Circle for Moon equalling 2”. And so on, and so forth.
Since the limiting numbers in the indiction chronology (15, 28, and 19) are all mutually non-divisible, any of their combinations may only recur after a number of years equalling the product of these numbers: 7,980 = 15 x 18 x 19. Thus, the recurrence of an indiction date can only happen after 7,980 years, which means that the indiction chronology can give a perfectly unequivocal date for any year within the span of 7,980 years.
The indiction method is closely related to the Julian calendar, the Paschalia, and the Christian Easter. It looks as though it was invented together with the Paschalia and the Easter tables. The reason is that two cycles out of the three used by indiction dates, namely the Circle for Sun and the Circle for Moon, were derived from the Julian calendar, its leap years, weekdays, and division into months.
Both cycles bear a direct relation to defining the Easter as the Sunday after the first full moon in spring. Hence, the chronological method of indiction is largely based on the calendar indices given by the Paschalia and is intrinsically derived from the latter.
It is known that the indiction chronology was used in ancient texts. It is considered to have been mainly used in mediaeval Byzantine opuses written “a long time ago”. But the indiction values had been used for referring to festive dates as recently as the XVII and even the XVIII centuries, along with the datings “since the Genesis” or “since Christ”.
The indiction dates have another peculiarity in what concerns the dates belonging to an unknown epoch. The indiction dates per se, without sophisticated calculations, tell nothing about how far away they are from the epoch contemporary to the scribe, or indeed from any other date, indiction or not.
Moreover, a distant indiction date tells nothing about whether it is from the past or from the future. Indiction dates aren’t ordered in any way at all. In order to understand which one of the two indiction dates precedes the other, one has to perform complex calculations, which are next to impossible without a calculator, and a programmable one, to boot.
As a result, the mediaeval chronologer studying an ancient chronicle could even make a mistake in whether the events described happened a long time ago, or belong to a prophecy about the distant future. As a result, prophecies about the future that were rather common in the Middle Ages could become mixed up with accounts of past events during later copying.
Most probably, the indiction dates were replaced by the chronology since Genesis, precisely in this era, that is, the epoch of the attempts to define the correct chronology of ancient times. This apparently happened in the XIV-XV centuries.
The beginning of the first “global” era must have been computed using the existing system of indiction dates as a foundation that is based on the Paschalia. Namely, the year was computed whose indiction, Circle for Sun, and the Circle for Moon had all equalled 1. Such a “remarkable” year only repeats itself once in 15 x 28 x 19 = 7,980 years.
Naturally, the closest such year in the past was selected. That happened to be the first year of the Russian and Byzantine era since Adam or since Genesis. Other calculations based on other cycles similar to those of the indiction chronology could give different initial reference points. This must be how quite a number of eras “since Genesis” came to existence.
Apparently, such calculations were first performed around 1409 AD, when the previous Great Indiction had ended, and the next one had commenced. That is, several decades prior to 1492 AD that happened to have been the 7,000th, or the last one according to the “true” era, computed by the mediaeval chronologists. This is why the End of Times perceived as the end of the world was scheduled for 1492 AD.
THE NICAEAN COUNCIL OF 325 AD CONTRADICTS THE PASCHALIA
There is a traditional consensual opinion according to which the Paschalia church calendar was canonized during the first Ecumenical Council in Nicaea. Nobody seem to be aware, however, that all of this blatantly contradicts Scaliger’s dating of the Nicaean council – 325 AD, and the epoch of the IV century AD in general.
The matter here is that the Paschalia consists of a number of calendarian and astronomical tables. The time of their compilation can be calculated from their contents qv below. In other words, the Paschalia can be dated by its astronomical contents. We see that the resulting dating of the Paschalia contradicts the dating of the Nicaean Council as the IV century AD.
The contradiction had been discovered a long time ago, and it was mentioned in the beginning of the XX century by Easter table specialists. However, to this day, there has been no comprehensive explanation of this phenomenon given.
What seems to be the matter here? The answer is probably that Scaliger’s dating of the first Nicaean Council is involved, and it’s extremely important for chronology. This is what the chronology of church history is based upon to a great extent, which is the same as saying entire mediaeval history, starting with the alleged IV century AD at least.
The erroneous (as we understand now) Scaliger’s dating of the Nicaean Council was used for the preparation of the famous Gregorian calendar reform as well. Specialists were naturally cautious of touching this sore spot of Scaliger’s chronology, being well aware of the significance of the issue for the entire concept of mediaeval history.
The alteration in the dating of the Nicaean Council leads to a complete revision of the entire scale of Scaliger’s chronology between the IV and XIV centuries AD. Apparently, this is precisely why those of the specialists who had noticed serious discrepancies between the contents of the Paschalia and the dating of the Nicaean Council were too timid to make conclusions, preferring the stance of obmutescence - as if the problem was completely nonexistent.
THE RULES FOR CELEBRATING EASTER
Let us turn to the canonical mediaeval ecclesial tractate - Matthew Vlastar’s Collection of Rules Devised by Holy Fathers, or The Alphabet Syntagma, [518], [17]. This rather voluminous book represents the rendition of the rules formulated by the Ecclesial and local Councils of the Orthodox Church.
Matthew Vlastar is considered to have been a Holy Hierarch from Thessalonica, and written his tractate in the XIV century [17], page 18. Today’s copies are of a much later date, of course. A large part of Vlastar’s Collection of Rules Devised by Holy Fathers contains the rules for celebrating Easter. Among other things, it says the following:
“The Easter Rules makes the two following restrictions: it should not be celebrated together with the Judaists, and it can only be celebrated after the spring equinox. Two more had to be added later, namely: celebrate after the first full moon after the equinox, but not any day – it should be celebrated on the first Sunday after the equinox. All of these restrictions, except for the last one, are still valid (in times of Matthew Vlastar – the XIV century – Auth.), although nowadays we often celebrate on the Sunday that comes later. Namely, we always count two days after the Lawful Easter (that is, the Passover, or the full moon – Auth.) and end up with the subsequent Sunday. This didn’t happen out of ignorance or lack of skill on the part of the Elders, but due to lunar motion” [518], part П, chapter 7, also see [17].
Let us emphasize that the quoted Collection of Rules Devised by Holy Fathers is a canonical mediaeval clerical volume, which gives it all the more authority, since we know that up until the XVII century, the Orthodox Church was very meticulous about the immutability of canonical literature and kept the texts exactly the way they were; with any alteration a complicated and widely discussed issue that would not have passed unnoticed.
This means that we can hope for Matthew Vlastar’s text to give us a precise enough account of the opinions held by the Constantinople scientists of the XIV century, in regard to the Easter issue. As we can see, Matthew Vlastar tells us the following:
In addition to the two Apostolic Easter rules, namely:
1) Not celebrating Easter together with the Judaists.
2) Only celebrating Easter after the spring equinox.
The Elders of the Council that introduced the Paschalia added two more rules for certainty, since the previous two do not define Easter day explicitly enough:
3) Only celebrating Easter after the first full moon in a given spring. That is, after the Passover that is often called “Lawful Easter” in Christian clerical literature – that is, Easter celebrated in accordance with the Law of Moses – or, alternatively, that of “the 14th Moon”.
4) Easter cannot be celebrated on any weekday; the celebration is to occur on the first Sunday following this full moon, or the Passover.
Since we’re mentioning Easter cycles, let us make some observations that concern the entire historical chronology and not just the dating of the Nicaean council. Today we have become so used to the same invariable chronological scale and era, that we simply lack the awareness of there being nothing simple or self-explanatory about this chronological method. When we use a four-digit number for referring to the current year, we aren’t really aware of just how excessive the everyday use of such a large number is.
We spend about ten years at school, and as a result, get more or less used to large numbers. They don’t frighten us anymore – however, this wasn’t the case in the days of yore when the very concept of large numbers and the ability to write them down were a privilege of educated people. Even today we often omit the first two figures when we refer to years – we say and write ’98 instead of 1998, ’99 instead of 1999, etc.
It isn’t hard to realize that during the immutable era chronology wasn’t, and couldn’t possibly have been, the primordial, original method of referring to dates. The overwhelming majority of mediaeval people would simply have been unable to understand it, and a chronology that’s only understood by a small number of educated people makes no sense whatsoever. More specifically, such a method could have been used in a special context, in ancient astronomical tractates, for instance.
But its use would already be impossible in the context of chronicles, since they had to be comprehensible by everyone or nearly everyone. Unlike astronomical rules and observations, past events have always been of interest to rulers and governors, whose deeds were described in chronicles along with those of their predecessors.
The rulers didn’t need to possess special scientific knowledge - moreover, in the Middle Ages they have occasionally been illiterate. The chronicle dates had to be understood by the rulers’ scribes, the monks in monasteries, etc. This meant that the way of referring to dates in chronicles had to correspond to everyday chronology used by the masses – which still is the case in our day.
The inability of the masses of ancient and mediaeval people to handle large numbers can be well illustrated by the history of monetary values. It is known that monetary units in the Middle Ages were much larger than today, and the sums that they operated with were significantly smaller, respectively.
The vast majority of the mediaeval people could not handle large sums of money, due to their inability to handle large numbers. Ergo, they couldn’t handle large numbers in chronology, either, which means they could not have used one based on an immutable era. Such chronology could only develop on a rather high stage of the development of human knowledge.
Apparently, resorting to the immutable era chronology was, by and large, a measure taken out of barest necessity when humanity got into a real quandary regarding what concerned the events of the distant past and their chronology. What we perceive as natural and easy nowadays is a result of habit – one that has been developing for several centuries.
We are thus confronted with a very important question of how the really old documents could represent the dates in written form – the originals, not the forgeries or re-editions of the XVII century.
The answer is well known. One of the most frequently used methods was the count of years since the beginning of a ruler’s reign. It was widely used in ancient times and in the Middle Ages, and is still employed in Japan, for instance, where the count of years begins with the first year of the Emperor’s reign.
This fashion is of little use chronologically speaking if the years of a king’s reign as given in ancient chronicles are long forgotten – so the comprehension of such a date requires translating the years of a king’s reign into the language of modern chronology, possibly comparing them to those of well-known and well-dated ancient kings. It can’t always be done securely and positively, and it requires a large number of these “known and dated kings”.
Despite its simplicity, the method of counting years since the beginning of a king’s reign contains a number of impracticalities. For instance, every change of reign induces a shift in the year number, and a random one at that. Tracing such chronology, even a mere 50-100 years back, may already be a complex task, since it may involve calculating how many years have passed since the third year of the second king preceding the last one.
This involves recollecting the years of the last couple of reigns and their sequence, which may not be very convenient in quotidian use. Apart from that, one has to consider the fact that during political turmoil and frequent ruler changes, such “chronology” stops functioning altogether.
This is why old chronicles had another method of counting years; a much more sophisticated one. This method didn’t require the knowledge of large numbers, but it also did not depend on the names and reigns of kings and provided for a much smoother count of years, without any sudden shifts or leaps. It could also serve for a long time – theoretically, a span of about eight thousand years could be covered.
This method is very closely related to the clerical Paschalia and the Julian calendar. Let us refer to it as the indiction method, or one of counting years by indictions. Let us elaborate on that.
The year number wasn’t given as one large number, the way it is today, but rather a sequence of three small numbers. These numbers had their own names – the indiction, the Circle for Sun, and the Circle for Moon. Each one of them grew by a quotient of 1 every year, but would return to its minimal value upon reaching its maximal. That is to say, it got back to one, and would then start growing by a quotient of one every year yet again.
Thus, instead one theoretically infinite year counter that we use today, the indiction method involved three finite cyclical counters and referred to the year as to a series of small numbers, each one of which had to contain itself within its specific boundaries. Those were:
- the indiction that grew from 1 to 15 and then got thrown back to 1;
- the Circle for Sun that grew from 1 to 28 and then got thrown back to 28;
- The Circle for Moon that grew from 1 to 19 and then got thrown back to 1.
A scribe that used the indiction chronology could write, “This event happened in the 14th indiction, the Circle for Sun equalling 16, and the Circle for Moon equalling 19. The next year something else happened in the 15th indiction, with the Circle for Sun equalling 17, and the Circle for Moon equalling 1. The year after that the following had happened, and it took place in the 1st indiction, with the Circle for Sun equalling 18, and the Circle for Moon equalling 2”. And so on, and so forth.
Since the limiting numbers in the indiction chronology (15, 28, and 19) are all mutually non-divisible, any of their combinations may only recur after a number of years equalling the product of these numbers: 7,980 = 15 x 18 x 19. Thus, the recurrence of an indiction date can only happen after 7,980 years, which means that the indiction chronology can give a perfectly unequivocal date for any year within the span of 7,980 years.
The indiction method is closely related to the Julian calendar, the Paschalia, and the Christian Easter. It looks as though it was invented together with the Paschalia and the Easter tables. The reason is that two cycles out of the three used by indiction dates, namely the Circle for Sun and the Circle for Moon, were derived from the Julian calendar, its leap years, weekdays, and division into months.
Both cycles bear a direct relation to defining the Easter as the Sunday after the first full moon in spring. Hence, the chronological method of indiction is largely based on the calendar indices given by the Paschalia and is intrinsically derived from the latter.
It is known that the indiction chronology was used in ancient texts. It is considered to have been mainly used in mediaeval Byzantine opuses written “a long time ago”. But the indiction values had been used for referring to festive dates as recently as the XVII and even the XVIII centuries, along with the datings “since the Genesis” or “since Christ”.
The indiction dates have another peculiarity in what concerns the dates belonging to an unknown epoch. The indiction dates per se, without sophisticated calculations, tell nothing about how far away they are from the epoch contemporary to the scribe, or indeed from any other date, indiction or not.
Moreover, a distant indiction date tells nothing about whether it is from the past or from the future. Indiction dates aren’t ordered in any way at all. In order to understand which one of the two indiction dates precedes the other, one has to perform complex calculations, which are next to impossible without a calculator, and a programmable one, to boot.
As a result, the mediaeval chronologer studying an ancient chronicle could even make a mistake in whether the events described happened a long time ago, or belong to a prophecy about the distant future. As a result, prophecies about the future that were rather common in the Middle Ages could become mixed up with accounts of past events during later copying.
Most probably, the indiction dates were replaced by the chronology since Genesis, precisely in this era, that is, the epoch of the attempts to define the correct chronology of ancient times. This apparently happened in the XIV-XV centuries.
The beginning of the first “global” era must have been computed using the existing system of indiction dates as a foundation that is based on the Paschalia. Namely, the year was computed whose indiction, Circle for Sun, and the Circle for Moon had all equalled 1. Such a “remarkable” year only repeats itself once in 15 x 28 x 19 = 7,980 years.
Naturally, the closest such year in the past was selected. That happened to be the first year of the Russian and Byzantine era since Adam or since Genesis. Other calculations based on other cycles similar to those of the indiction chronology could give different initial reference points. This must be how quite a number of eras “since Genesis” came to existence.
Apparently, such calculations were first performed around 1409 AD, when the previous Great Indiction had ended, and the next one had commenced. That is, several decades prior to 1492 AD that happened to have been the 7,000th, or the last one according to the “true” era, computed by the mediaeval chronologists. This is why the End of Times perceived as the end of the world was scheduled for 1492 AD.
THE NICAEAN COUNCIL OF 325 AD CONTRADICTS THE PASCHALIA
There is a traditional consensual opinion according to which the Paschalia church calendar was canonized during the first Ecumenical Council in Nicaea. Nobody seem to be aware, however, that all of this blatantly contradicts Scaliger’s dating of the Nicaean council – 325 AD, and the epoch of the IV century AD in general.
The matter here is that the Paschalia consists of a number of calendarian and astronomical tables. The time of their compilation can be calculated from their contents qv below. In other words, the Paschalia can be dated by its astronomical contents. We see that the resulting dating of the Paschalia contradicts the dating of the Nicaean Council as the IV century AD.
The contradiction had been discovered a long time ago, and it was mentioned in the beginning of the XX century by Easter table specialists. However, to this day, there has been no comprehensive explanation of this phenomenon given.
What seems to be the matter here? The answer is probably that Scaliger’s dating of the first Nicaean Council is involved, and it’s extremely important for chronology. This is what the chronology of church history is based upon to a great extent, which is the same as saying entire mediaeval history, starting with the alleged IV century AD at least.
The erroneous (as we understand now) Scaliger’s dating of the Nicaean Council was used for the preparation of the famous Gregorian calendar reform as well. Specialists were naturally cautious of touching this sore spot of Scaliger’s chronology, being well aware of the significance of the issue for the entire concept of mediaeval history.
The alteration in the dating of the Nicaean Council leads to a complete revision of the entire scale of Scaliger’s chronology between the IV and XIV centuries AD. Apparently, this is precisely why those of the specialists who had noticed serious discrepancies between the contents of the Paschalia and the dating of the Nicaean Council were too timid to make conclusions, preferring the stance of obmutescence - as if the problem was completely nonexistent.
THE RULES FOR CELEBRATING EASTER
Let us turn to the canonical mediaeval ecclesial tractate - Matthew Vlastar’s Collection of Rules Devised by Holy Fathers, or The Alphabet Syntagma, [518], [17]. This rather voluminous book represents the rendition of the rules formulated by the Ecclesial and local Councils of the Orthodox Church.
Matthew Vlastar is considered to have been a Holy Hierarch from Thessalonica, and written his tractate in the XIV century [17], page 18. Today’s copies are of a much later date, of course. A large part of Vlastar’s Collection of Rules Devised by Holy Fathers contains the rules for celebrating Easter. Among other things, it says the following:
“The Easter Rules makes the two following restrictions: it should not be celebrated together with the Judaists, and it can only be celebrated after the spring equinox. Two more had to be added later, namely: celebrate after the first full moon after the equinox, but not any day – it should be celebrated on the first Sunday after the equinox. All of these restrictions, except for the last one, are still valid (in times of Matthew Vlastar – the XIV century – Auth.), although nowadays we often celebrate on the Sunday that comes later. Namely, we always count two days after the Lawful Easter (that is, the Passover, or the full moon – Auth.) and end up with the subsequent Sunday. This didn’t happen out of ignorance or lack of skill on the part of the Elders, but due to lunar motion” [518], part П, chapter 7, also see [17].
Let us emphasize that the quoted Collection of Rules Devised by Holy Fathers is a canonical mediaeval clerical volume, which gives it all the more authority, since we know that up until the XVII century, the Orthodox Church was very meticulous about the immutability of canonical literature and kept the texts exactly the way they were; with any alteration a complicated and widely discussed issue that would not have passed unnoticed.
This means that we can hope for Matthew Vlastar’s text to give us a precise enough account of the opinions held by the Constantinople scientists of the XIV century, in regard to the Easter issue. As we can see, Matthew Vlastar tells us the following:
In addition to the two Apostolic Easter rules, namely:
1) Not celebrating Easter together with the Judaists.
2) Only celebrating Easter after the spring equinox.
The Elders of the Council that introduced the Paschalia added two more rules for certainty, since the previous two do not define Easter day explicitly enough:
3) Only celebrating Easter after the first full moon in a given spring. That is, after the Passover that is often called “Lawful Easter” in Christian clerical literature – that is, Easter celebrated in accordance with the Law of Moses – or, alternatively, that of “the 14th Moon”.
4) Easter cannot be celebrated on any weekday; the celebration is to occur on the first Sunday following this full moon, or the Passover.
sandokhan- Activ
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Re: Dating the ecumenical council of Nicaea - the Easter Issue
THE FOURTH RULE BROKEN
The first three rules of four were still quite valid in the XIV century, according to Vlastar, whereas the 4th rule of Easter Sunday being the first Sunday after the full moon was already broken.
Furthermore, Matthew Vlastar gives a perfectly valid astronomical explanation of why the rule was broken. The reason is that the Circle for Moon (Methon’s Cycle) isn’t completely precise. There is a very slow shift of real full moon dates in relation to the ones stated by the Circle for Moon that the Elders of the Council may have been unaware of. However, in the age of Matthew Vlastar, knowledge of the shift already existed. Vlastar was aware of it and gave its correct value – about 24 hours in 300 years.
This is why no less than two days should pass between the full moon and Easter (according to Vlastar, and applicable to his age). The matter is that the calculations of the Christian Easter are based on the calendar with its Circle for Moon values, as opposed to real full moon dates given by astronomy.
When, over the passage of time, a two-day discrepancy between the Paschalian Circle for Moon and the real full moon schedule had evolved, this could not fail to impact the distance between the astronomical spring equinox and Easter Sunday. If the previous distance equalled “zero or more” (so that Easter could not come before the full moon), it became “equalling two or more” so that the Easter could not come earlier than two days after the full moon.
However, most often the amount of days separating the full moon and Easter Sunday, exceeded two, anyway, since the rules have it so that one had to wait for the Easter’s advent from the vernal full moon and until the closest Sunday, that is, about three days (half a week) in average, and more than two days in most cases.
So the two-day gap that had accumulated by the age of Vlastar did not always manifest, and no rules were broken in the years when several days had to pass between the full moon and Easter.
However, in certain years, when the distance proved less than two days, the 4th Easter rule was broken, namely, Easter Sunday fell on the second Sunday after the vernal full moon. For example, if the Passover falls on a Saturday, Easter has to be celebrated the next day, on Sunday.
However, due to the accumulated two-day gap, the Paschalia will define the calendarian Passover as occurring two days later, on Monday; and Easter will thus fall on the next Sunday. In other words: in Vlastar’s times, Easter was celebrated on the first Sunday, two days after the spring equinox. Thus, every rule of the four was followed, except for the cases when the 4th rule needed to be broken.
A ROUGH CALCULATION OF THE DATE OF THE PASCHALIA’S CREATION
Thus, we know a lot, almost everything, about the Paschalia. So, why the astronomical context of the Paschalia contradicts Scaliger’s dating (alleged 325 AD) of the Nicaean Council where the Paschalia was canonized?
This contradiction can easily be seen from the roughest of calculations.
1) The difference between the Paschalian full moons and the real ones grows at the rate of one day in 300 years.
2) A two-day difference had accumulated by the time of Vlastar, which is roughly dated 1330 AD.
3) Ergo, the Paschalia was compiled somewhere around 730 AD, since
1330 – (300 x 2) = 730.
It is understood that the Paschalia could only be canonized by the Council sometime later. But this fails to correspond to Scaliger’s dating of its canonization as 325 AD in any way at all!
Let us emphasize, that Matthew Vlastar himself, doesn’t see any contradiction here, since he is apparently unaware of the Nicaean Council’s dating as the alleged year 325 AD. A natural hypothesis: this traditional dating was introduced much later than Vlastar’s age. Most probably, it was first calculated in Scaliger’s time.
It is also written that “Defining the Easter date in accordance with the Orthodox Paschalia one has to be certain the Easter does not coincide with the Passover… The table… gives the dates for Passover celebrations starting with 900 AD (?! – Auth.)” [816], page 14. Why do the dates start with 900 AD? Could it be due to the fact that the coincidences mentioned here only stopped occurring in VIII AD?
Let us commence solving the problem of dating the Nicaean Council according to the Paschalia in the same manner that it would be confronted by the chronologers of the XIV-XVI centuries. But, unlike them, we shall be using a precise astronomical theory that wasn’t available to them.
THE DATING OF THE PASCHALIA BY THE ACTUAL DEFINITION OF EASTER
We have witnessed that the Apostolic – the principal – Easter rule requires the Easter’s non-coincidence with the Jewish Passover. Furthermore, the canonical ecclesial texts give a direct and explicit definition of what is meant by “Passover” – the first vernal full moon. Let us note that the method of defining the Passover date as used by the contemporary Judaic tradition is somewhat different.
Presently, new moons can be calculated with the utmost precision, since there is a powerful theory of lunar movement in existence. However, such precision was hardly relevant to our means, so we used the classical Gaussian formulae that just give the dates of vernal full moons in the past rather than the precise time.
These formulae are a creation of Karl Friedrich Gauss, the eminent mathematician of the XIX century, and their intended purpose is precisely what we needed – Easter calculations. We have used them for programming the software that gave us the Julian dates of every vernal equinox since 1 AD, which were then compared with the Orthodox Easter dates in accordance with the Paschalia Easter Book. We shall currently omit the calculation details and the tables, since interested readers can repeat them using given algorithm. The conclusion we came to:
FIRST STATEMENT:
The Council that introduced the Paschalia – according to the modern tradition as well as the mediaeval one, was the Nicaean Council – could not have taken place before 784 AD, since this was the first year when the calendar date for the Christian Easter stopped coinciding with the Passover full moon due to slow astronomical shifts of lunar phases.
The last such coincidence occurred in 784 AD, and after that year, the dates of Easter and Passover drifted apart forever. This means the Nicaean Council could not have possibly canonized the Paschalia in IV AD, when the calendar Easter Sunday would coincide with the Passover eight (!) times – in 316, 319, 323, 343, 347, 367, 374, and 394 AD, and would even precede it by two days five (!) times, which is directly forbidden by the fourth Easter rule, that is, in 306 and 326 (allegedly already a year after the Nicaean Council), as well as the years 346, 350, and 370.
Thus, if we’re to follow the consensual chronological version, we’ll have to consider the first Easter celebrations after the Nicaean Council to blatantly contradict three of the four rules that the Council decreed specifically for this feast! The rules allegedly become broken the very next year after the Council decrees them, yet start to be followed zealously and in full detail five centuries (!) after that.
Let us note that J.J. Scaliger could not have noticed this obvious nonsense during his compilation of the consensual ancient chronology, since computing true full moon dates for the distant past had not been a solved problem in his epoch.
The above mentioned absurdity was noticed much later, when the state of astronomical science became satisfactory for said purpose, but it was too late already, since Scaliger’s version of chronology had already been canonized, rigidified, and baptized “scientific”, with all major corrections forbidden.
THE DATING BY PASSOVER FULL MOONS
We have seen that according to ecclesial rules, Easter Sunday was initially computed astronomically as the first Sunday after the first vernal full moon. Then the Nicaean Council had developed a number of calendarian rules for defining the Easter date. Easter has been a calendarian event ever since. One didn’t have to observe the sky in order to determine the date for Easter, but could simply look at the calendar.
However, the original astronomical meaning of the Easter definition can be clearly determined from the actual Easter tables. Indeed, some of these tables contain a separate list of Passover dates, which one should use as a reference point in order to define the next Sunday as Easter. This list – the “Circle for Moon” – contains 19 dates, since it was estimated that the cycle of vernal full moons completely recurs after 19 years.
This way, the very structure of the Easter tables reflects the astronomical meaning of Easter being defined as the first Sunday after the first vernal full moon (the Passover). The dates of the Passover full moons according to the Paschalia considerably differ from the real ones nowadays. We shall refer to these dates from the Paschalia as the Paschalian full moon dates in order to differ between them and the real astronomical ones.
However, the compilers of the Paschalia were unaware of this and considered their schedule of vernal full moons to be perfectly precise. This is not the case, although the discrepancy is a minute one and requires the passage of several centuries to manifest. The true vernal full moons of the 19-year cycle slowly migrate backwards in the Julian calendar, whereas the ones given in the Easter tables are static. This makes the former, begin to precede the latter by a ratio of 24 hours every 300 years.
The fact that the Nicaean Council thought the Easter Circle for Moon values would be correct forevermore and always correspond to the astronomical full moon values is reflected in clerical sources – Matthew Vlastar is a good example qv above. But the correct astronomical Circle for Moon – the 19-year cycle of vernal full moon schedules – must have been exactly the way we see it in the Paschalia.
This simple consideration allows one to give a rough dating of the Paschalia compilation. It suffices to compare the Easter table of vernal full moons to the precise modern tables of lunar phases of the past, and find the period of time when they coincided. We have thus reached the conclusion reflected in the following statement.
SECOND STATEMENT:
A satisfactory coincidence of calendarian Passover full moons with the astronomical ones had only existed between 700 AD and 1000 AD (by which we mean their occurrence within the range of 24 hours from each other). Prior to that, the calendarian full moons have always taken place after the Passover ones, and after 1000 AD, the opposite started to happen. The beginning of the 13th Great Indiction (877 AD) falls on the period of ideal coincidence of Passover and astronomical full moons.
This means the Paschalia could only have been compiled in the period between the IX and XI centuries AD.
Propter hoc, the dating of the Nicaean Council (as the Council that had introduced the Paschalia) is only possible, within the timeframe of the VII-XI centuries, the most probable one being the epoch of the X-XI centuries, after the year 877 AD.
This is why. It is understood that the Council had introduced the Paschalia in order to have it ready for immediate use. Wouldn’t it be strange to compile an Easter table for 532 years that can only be used after the passage of decades or even centuries? But this is exactly what Scaliger’s version offers us: 325 AD is the date when the Nicaean Council canonized the Paschalia according to Scaliger, with the closest Great Indiction (as marking the beginning of the table) commencing in 20 years, in 345 AD.
This is highly implausible. This can be seen from the mere fact that the Paschalia includes the complete table of Easter dates for as long a time as the entire Great Indiction of 532 years, moreover, after the passage of said time, the table can be moved forwards in time as a single unit and cover the next 532 years.
This way, the change of the table that coincides with the beginning of the new Great Indiction is an extremely rare event, one that can only happen once or twice in a millennium. But what do we see? The beginning of one of the Great Indictions – the year 877 AD – coincides with the period of time when the concurrence of calendarian and astronomical full moons is perfect!
A natural hypothesis is that 877 AD was the very year the Council that introduced the Paschalia decided the Great Indiction to have commenced. It is clear that this year could either coincide with the year of the actual Council, or precede it. For instance, this year could have been linked to some event that was considered significant (and maybe even ancient) by the Elders of the Council.
NOTE. The beginning of one of the Great Indictions coincides with the Byzantine chronological reference point for the era since Adam, or “since the Genesis”, as it became referred to afterwards. The corresponding Indiction is considered to have been the first one - the initial point all the other Great Indictions were counted from.
Thus we see that the chronology since Adam, which was widely used in the Middle Ages, is closely related to the Easter calculations of the astronomers. This is indirectly confirmed by the fact that, this chronology is said to have been introduced in the reign of Emperor Constantius, that is, immediately after the Nicaean Council. It is said, that
“An important place in chronological computations… is occupied by the two Byzantine eras. According to the first one, the chronology began on Saturday, the 1st of September 5509 BC. This era was devised in the reign of Emperor Constantius (337-361 AD)… Ever since the VI century, Byzantium began to use a different era “since Genesis”, which was supposed to have occurred on the 1st of March of the year 5508 AD” [393], page 38.
Apparently, the date that the compilation and canonization of the Paschalia took place was moved backwards in time in Scaliger’s version of chronology, along with the date of the chronology since Adam was introduced, which probably happened after devising 877 AD to have been the beginning of the Great Indiction.
As was noted above, the beginning of chronology since Adam must have been calculated by counting a certain number of Great Indictions back into the past from some date. The beginning of the era must have been thought to be the beginning of the indiction, whose first year gave the first indiction value. Due to the incomparability of the Great Indiction and the 15-year indiction cycle, this combination can only occur once in 7,980 years: 15 x 532 = 7,980.
Thus, first the reference point for the beginning of one of the Great Indictions had been deduced, and then, after rather complex (considering the epoch) calculations, the date of the “unique” Great Indiction that correlated with the indiction values was found. This was used to denote the beginning of the era since Adam, as a result of considerations that were perfectly natural for the mediaeval mind with its propensity to ascribe divine significance to elegant numeric proportions.
The notorious “Apocalypse date” that was awaited in 1492 (the year 7000 since Adam), bearing “special significance” according to some considerations, must have been calculated in a similar manner, and all of these calculations appear to have been made in the XIII-XIV centuries. The initial point of reference must have been the beginning of the current Great Indiction that had started in 877 AD and ended in 1408 AD.
The first three rules of four were still quite valid in the XIV century, according to Vlastar, whereas the 4th rule of Easter Sunday being the first Sunday after the full moon was already broken.
Furthermore, Matthew Vlastar gives a perfectly valid astronomical explanation of why the rule was broken. The reason is that the Circle for Moon (Methon’s Cycle) isn’t completely precise. There is a very slow shift of real full moon dates in relation to the ones stated by the Circle for Moon that the Elders of the Council may have been unaware of. However, in the age of Matthew Vlastar, knowledge of the shift already existed. Vlastar was aware of it and gave its correct value – about 24 hours in 300 years.
This is why no less than two days should pass between the full moon and Easter (according to Vlastar, and applicable to his age). The matter is that the calculations of the Christian Easter are based on the calendar with its Circle for Moon values, as opposed to real full moon dates given by astronomy.
When, over the passage of time, a two-day discrepancy between the Paschalian Circle for Moon and the real full moon schedule had evolved, this could not fail to impact the distance between the astronomical spring equinox and Easter Sunday. If the previous distance equalled “zero or more” (so that Easter could not come before the full moon), it became “equalling two or more” so that the Easter could not come earlier than two days after the full moon.
However, most often the amount of days separating the full moon and Easter Sunday, exceeded two, anyway, since the rules have it so that one had to wait for the Easter’s advent from the vernal full moon and until the closest Sunday, that is, about three days (half a week) in average, and more than two days in most cases.
So the two-day gap that had accumulated by the age of Vlastar did not always manifest, and no rules were broken in the years when several days had to pass between the full moon and Easter.
However, in certain years, when the distance proved less than two days, the 4th Easter rule was broken, namely, Easter Sunday fell on the second Sunday after the vernal full moon. For example, if the Passover falls on a Saturday, Easter has to be celebrated the next day, on Sunday.
However, due to the accumulated two-day gap, the Paschalia will define the calendarian Passover as occurring two days later, on Monday; and Easter will thus fall on the next Sunday. In other words: in Vlastar’s times, Easter was celebrated on the first Sunday, two days after the spring equinox. Thus, every rule of the four was followed, except for the cases when the 4th rule needed to be broken.
A ROUGH CALCULATION OF THE DATE OF THE PASCHALIA’S CREATION
Thus, we know a lot, almost everything, about the Paschalia. So, why the astronomical context of the Paschalia contradicts Scaliger’s dating (alleged 325 AD) of the Nicaean Council where the Paschalia was canonized?
This contradiction can easily be seen from the roughest of calculations.
1) The difference between the Paschalian full moons and the real ones grows at the rate of one day in 300 years.
2) A two-day difference had accumulated by the time of Vlastar, which is roughly dated 1330 AD.
3) Ergo, the Paschalia was compiled somewhere around 730 AD, since
1330 – (300 x 2) = 730.
It is understood that the Paschalia could only be canonized by the Council sometime later. But this fails to correspond to Scaliger’s dating of its canonization as 325 AD in any way at all!
Let us emphasize, that Matthew Vlastar himself, doesn’t see any contradiction here, since he is apparently unaware of the Nicaean Council’s dating as the alleged year 325 AD. A natural hypothesis: this traditional dating was introduced much later than Vlastar’s age. Most probably, it was first calculated in Scaliger’s time.
It is also written that “Defining the Easter date in accordance with the Orthodox Paschalia one has to be certain the Easter does not coincide with the Passover… The table… gives the dates for Passover celebrations starting with 900 AD (?! – Auth.)” [816], page 14. Why do the dates start with 900 AD? Could it be due to the fact that the coincidences mentioned here only stopped occurring in VIII AD?
Let us commence solving the problem of dating the Nicaean Council according to the Paschalia in the same manner that it would be confronted by the chronologers of the XIV-XVI centuries. But, unlike them, we shall be using a precise astronomical theory that wasn’t available to them.
THE DATING OF THE PASCHALIA BY THE ACTUAL DEFINITION OF EASTER
We have witnessed that the Apostolic – the principal – Easter rule requires the Easter’s non-coincidence with the Jewish Passover. Furthermore, the canonical ecclesial texts give a direct and explicit definition of what is meant by “Passover” – the first vernal full moon. Let us note that the method of defining the Passover date as used by the contemporary Judaic tradition is somewhat different.
Presently, new moons can be calculated with the utmost precision, since there is a powerful theory of lunar movement in existence. However, such precision was hardly relevant to our means, so we used the classical Gaussian formulae that just give the dates of vernal full moons in the past rather than the precise time.
These formulae are a creation of Karl Friedrich Gauss, the eminent mathematician of the XIX century, and their intended purpose is precisely what we needed – Easter calculations. We have used them for programming the software that gave us the Julian dates of every vernal equinox since 1 AD, which were then compared with the Orthodox Easter dates in accordance with the Paschalia Easter Book. We shall currently omit the calculation details and the tables, since interested readers can repeat them using given algorithm. The conclusion we came to:
FIRST STATEMENT:
The Council that introduced the Paschalia – according to the modern tradition as well as the mediaeval one, was the Nicaean Council – could not have taken place before 784 AD, since this was the first year when the calendar date for the Christian Easter stopped coinciding with the Passover full moon due to slow astronomical shifts of lunar phases.
The last such coincidence occurred in 784 AD, and after that year, the dates of Easter and Passover drifted apart forever. This means the Nicaean Council could not have possibly canonized the Paschalia in IV AD, when the calendar Easter Sunday would coincide with the Passover eight (!) times – in 316, 319, 323, 343, 347, 367, 374, and 394 AD, and would even precede it by two days five (!) times, which is directly forbidden by the fourth Easter rule, that is, in 306 and 326 (allegedly already a year after the Nicaean Council), as well as the years 346, 350, and 370.
Thus, if we’re to follow the consensual chronological version, we’ll have to consider the first Easter celebrations after the Nicaean Council to blatantly contradict three of the four rules that the Council decreed specifically for this feast! The rules allegedly become broken the very next year after the Council decrees them, yet start to be followed zealously and in full detail five centuries (!) after that.
Let us note that J.J. Scaliger could not have noticed this obvious nonsense during his compilation of the consensual ancient chronology, since computing true full moon dates for the distant past had not been a solved problem in his epoch.
The above mentioned absurdity was noticed much later, when the state of astronomical science became satisfactory for said purpose, but it was too late already, since Scaliger’s version of chronology had already been canonized, rigidified, and baptized “scientific”, with all major corrections forbidden.
THE DATING BY PASSOVER FULL MOONS
We have seen that according to ecclesial rules, Easter Sunday was initially computed astronomically as the first Sunday after the first vernal full moon. Then the Nicaean Council had developed a number of calendarian rules for defining the Easter date. Easter has been a calendarian event ever since. One didn’t have to observe the sky in order to determine the date for Easter, but could simply look at the calendar.
However, the original astronomical meaning of the Easter definition can be clearly determined from the actual Easter tables. Indeed, some of these tables contain a separate list of Passover dates, which one should use as a reference point in order to define the next Sunday as Easter. This list – the “Circle for Moon” – contains 19 dates, since it was estimated that the cycle of vernal full moons completely recurs after 19 years.
This way, the very structure of the Easter tables reflects the astronomical meaning of Easter being defined as the first Sunday after the first vernal full moon (the Passover). The dates of the Passover full moons according to the Paschalia considerably differ from the real ones nowadays. We shall refer to these dates from the Paschalia as the Paschalian full moon dates in order to differ between them and the real astronomical ones.
However, the compilers of the Paschalia were unaware of this and considered their schedule of vernal full moons to be perfectly precise. This is not the case, although the discrepancy is a minute one and requires the passage of several centuries to manifest. The true vernal full moons of the 19-year cycle slowly migrate backwards in the Julian calendar, whereas the ones given in the Easter tables are static. This makes the former, begin to precede the latter by a ratio of 24 hours every 300 years.
The fact that the Nicaean Council thought the Easter Circle for Moon values would be correct forevermore and always correspond to the astronomical full moon values is reflected in clerical sources – Matthew Vlastar is a good example qv above. But the correct astronomical Circle for Moon – the 19-year cycle of vernal full moon schedules – must have been exactly the way we see it in the Paschalia.
This simple consideration allows one to give a rough dating of the Paschalia compilation. It suffices to compare the Easter table of vernal full moons to the precise modern tables of lunar phases of the past, and find the period of time when they coincided. We have thus reached the conclusion reflected in the following statement.
SECOND STATEMENT:
A satisfactory coincidence of calendarian Passover full moons with the astronomical ones had only existed between 700 AD and 1000 AD (by which we mean their occurrence within the range of 24 hours from each other). Prior to that, the calendarian full moons have always taken place after the Passover ones, and after 1000 AD, the opposite started to happen. The beginning of the 13th Great Indiction (877 AD) falls on the period of ideal coincidence of Passover and astronomical full moons.
This means the Paschalia could only have been compiled in the period between the IX and XI centuries AD.
Propter hoc, the dating of the Nicaean Council (as the Council that had introduced the Paschalia) is only possible, within the timeframe of the VII-XI centuries, the most probable one being the epoch of the X-XI centuries, after the year 877 AD.
This is why. It is understood that the Council had introduced the Paschalia in order to have it ready for immediate use. Wouldn’t it be strange to compile an Easter table for 532 years that can only be used after the passage of decades or even centuries? But this is exactly what Scaliger’s version offers us: 325 AD is the date when the Nicaean Council canonized the Paschalia according to Scaliger, with the closest Great Indiction (as marking the beginning of the table) commencing in 20 years, in 345 AD.
This is highly implausible. This can be seen from the mere fact that the Paschalia includes the complete table of Easter dates for as long a time as the entire Great Indiction of 532 years, moreover, after the passage of said time, the table can be moved forwards in time as a single unit and cover the next 532 years.
This way, the change of the table that coincides with the beginning of the new Great Indiction is an extremely rare event, one that can only happen once or twice in a millennium. But what do we see? The beginning of one of the Great Indictions – the year 877 AD – coincides with the period of time when the concurrence of calendarian and astronomical full moons is perfect!
A natural hypothesis is that 877 AD was the very year the Council that introduced the Paschalia decided the Great Indiction to have commenced. It is clear that this year could either coincide with the year of the actual Council, or precede it. For instance, this year could have been linked to some event that was considered significant (and maybe even ancient) by the Elders of the Council.
NOTE. The beginning of one of the Great Indictions coincides with the Byzantine chronological reference point for the era since Adam, or “since the Genesis”, as it became referred to afterwards. The corresponding Indiction is considered to have been the first one - the initial point all the other Great Indictions were counted from.
Thus we see that the chronology since Adam, which was widely used in the Middle Ages, is closely related to the Easter calculations of the astronomers. This is indirectly confirmed by the fact that, this chronology is said to have been introduced in the reign of Emperor Constantius, that is, immediately after the Nicaean Council. It is said, that
“An important place in chronological computations… is occupied by the two Byzantine eras. According to the first one, the chronology began on Saturday, the 1st of September 5509 BC. This era was devised in the reign of Emperor Constantius (337-361 AD)… Ever since the VI century, Byzantium began to use a different era “since Genesis”, which was supposed to have occurred on the 1st of March of the year 5508 AD” [393], page 38.
Apparently, the date that the compilation and canonization of the Paschalia took place was moved backwards in time in Scaliger’s version of chronology, along with the date of the chronology since Adam was introduced, which probably happened after devising 877 AD to have been the beginning of the Great Indiction.
As was noted above, the beginning of chronology since Adam must have been calculated by counting a certain number of Great Indictions back into the past from some date. The beginning of the era must have been thought to be the beginning of the indiction, whose first year gave the first indiction value. Due to the incomparability of the Great Indiction and the 15-year indiction cycle, this combination can only occur once in 7,980 years: 15 x 532 = 7,980.
Thus, first the reference point for the beginning of one of the Great Indictions had been deduced, and then, after rather complex (considering the epoch) calculations, the date of the “unique” Great Indiction that correlated with the indiction values was found. This was used to denote the beginning of the era since Adam, as a result of considerations that were perfectly natural for the mediaeval mind with its propensity to ascribe divine significance to elegant numeric proportions.
The notorious “Apocalypse date” that was awaited in 1492 (the year 7000 since Adam), bearing “special significance” according to some considerations, must have been calculated in a similar manner, and all of these calculations appear to have been made in the XIII-XIV centuries. The initial point of reference must have been the beginning of the current Great Indiction that had started in 877 AD and ended in 1408 AD.
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Re: Dating the ecumenical council of Nicaea - the Easter Issue
THE DATING BY THE HAND OF DAMASCENUS
The Paschalia Easter Book does not contain the names of any of its compilers. The only name that is mentioned in the tables is that of Reverend John of Damascus (Johannes Damascenus). The Paschalia contains, among others, a table represented as a pair of human hands. The table allows for a number of Easter calculations with the use of numbers that are mentally placed along finger joints. It bears the inscription: “The Palm of Damascenus”.
Let us mark the fact that the Palm of Damascenus represents a rather ingenuous method of calculation that only makes sense in absence of complete Easter tables, without getting into details. Easter tables give the same data as can be computed on the Hand of Damascenus; this means that this system was developed well before the time of the complete Easter table, that is – before the Nicaean Council. This means that Reverend John of Damascus must have lived before or during the epoch of the Council.
However, Scaliger’s chronology dates the life span of Johannes Damascenus as late VII – early VIII century AD, that is, more than 300 years since the Scaliger’s dating of the Nicaean Council and the canonization of the Paschalia (that allegedly took place in 325 AD). This way, according to Scaliger’s chronology, the method of calculating dates by the Palm of Damascenus was invented when the Easter tables already containing the ready dates have been in existence for 300 years!
Even if we believe for a moment that John of Damascus was born in the late VIII century (when he really lived a lot later), it logically follows that the Paschalia Easter Book was canonized in 700 AD at the earliest. In other words, Scaliger’s datings of the Paschalia’s canonization and the traditional dating of the lifespan of Johannes Damascenus, contradict each other.
EXPLICIT DATING GIVEN BY MATTHEW VLASTAR
It is indeed amazing that Matthew Vlastar’s Collection of Rules Devised by Holy Fathers – the book that every Paschalia researcher refers to – contains an explicit dating of the time the Easter Book was compiled. It is even more amazing that none of the numerous researchers of Vlastar’s text appeared to have noticed it (?!), despite the fact that the date is given directly after the oft-quoted place of Vlastar’s book, about the rules of calculating the Easter date. Moreover, all quoting stops abruptly immediately before the point where Vlastar gives this explicit date.
What could possibly be the matter? Why don’t modern commentators find themselves capable of quoting the rest of Vlastar’s text? We are of the opinion that they attempt to conceal from the reader the fragments of ancient texts that explode the entire edifice of Scaliger’s chronology. We shall quote this part completely:
Matthew Vlastar:
“There are four rules concerning the Easter. The first two are the apostolic rules, and the other two are known from tradition. The first rule is that the Easter should be celebrated after the spring equinox. The second is that is should not be celebrated together with the Judeans. The third: not just after the equinox, but also after the first full moon following the equinox. And the fourth: not just after the full moon, but the first Sunday following the full moon… The current Paschalia was compiled and given to the church by our fathers in full faith that it does not contradict any of the quoted postulates. (This is the place the quoting usually stops, as we have already mentioned – Auth.). They created it the following way: 19 consecutive years were taken starting with the year 6233 since Genesis (= 725 AD – Auth.) and up until the year 6251 (= 743 AD – Auth.), and the date of the first full moon after the spring equinox was looked up for each one of them. The Paschalia makes it obvious that when the Elders were doing it; the equinox fell on the 21st of March” ([518]).
Thus, the Circle for Moon – the foundation of the Paschalia – was devised according to the observations from the years 725-743 AD; hence, the Paschalia couldn’t possibly have been compiled, let alone canonized, before that.
Matthew Vlastar, who lived in the XIV century, hadn’t had any doubts about the Elders having devised the Paschalian cycle of 19 years after 743 AD. He already knew that the astronomical full moons migrated to earlier dates in the Julian calendar at the ratio of 24 hours per about 304 years, and wrote the following:
“If we consider the cycle of 19 years, 304 after the Elders who had devised it – it shall be the 17th, one that started in the year 6537 (=1029 AD – Auth.) – we shall see that the first vernal full moons precede the full moons of the first 19-year cycle by a day… If we consider the other 19-year circle in a similar manner, the one that starts in the year 6842 (=1333 AD), we shall discover that the full moons it gives predate the real ones by yet another day… This is why these two days are added to the Lawful Easter (Passover – Auth.)” ([518]).
As we have demonstrated above – see the “Second Statement” – this consideration of Vlastar’s is fully confirmed by the modern astronomical calculations. Passover full moons really occurred about 2 days later than the real ones in 1333 AD, about 1 day later in 1029 AD, and coincided with them in the second part of the VIII century, which is when they were compiled according to Vlastar - however, this contradicts the consensual chronology.
SUMMING UP THE DATINGS OF THE NICAEAN COUNCIL
The Paschalia could have been compiled in the following timeframe:
- not any earlier than 784 AD by the actual definition of Easter;
- not any earlier than 700 AD by the coincidence of Paschalian and astronomical full moons;
- not any earlier than 700 AD by the Palm of Damascenus;
- not any earlier than 743 AD according to Matthew Vlastar;
Hence, the Paschalia was first compiled earliest around the second half of the VIII century AD. The Paschalia was canonized at the Nicaean Council that took place in the XI-XIV centuries. The Paschalia might well have contained certain astronomical concepts of the VII-XI centuries that had already been a part of the ecclesial tradition by that time.
THE “FIRST AND SECOND” ECUMENICAL COUNCILS
THAT CANONIZED THE PASCHALIA
The Paschalia may have been developed before the Nicaean Council where it had been chosen (out of several versions), and canonized. Obviously, the first complete Easter tables for 532 years were also compiled around that time, and have been included in the ecclesial literature ever since.
The epoch of the Paschalia’s canonization must have also been the time when the beginning of the Great Indiction was devised – the year that the complete Easter table starts with. Since, as we have seen, the Paschalia wasn’t created any earlier than the VIII century, this year could only have been 877 AD – the beginning of the “13th” Indiction – which was really the first and only, becoming referred to as 13th after they started to count the Indictions from the beginning of chronology since Genesis.
One is tempted to look for the traces of the Nicaean Council in the epoch of 877 AD, which was the year the very first Great Indiction commenced, and thus could have some information concerning the Council in the vicinity of this date in Scaliger’s version of history.
It turns out that such traces do exist, and very obvious ones at that. Namely, the so-called “First and Second Ecumenical Councils” (two councils really comprising one) that took place towards the end of the IX century.
According to Scaliger’s version, the year 877 AD coincides with the middle of the reign of the Byzantine Emperor, Basil I of Macedonia (867-886). The Ecumenical Council with the somewhat odd name of the First and Second Ecumenical Councils occurred during his reign. The Council in question is the First Ecumenical Council that took place in the reign of Constantine the Great (also known as Basil I of Macedonia), and the next one must have been the Second Ecumenical council that appears to have occurred shortly afterwards. Let us remind that the Paschalia was canonized at the First Ecumenical Council in Nicaea.
Furthermore, it is assumed that a number of chronological issues were discussed at the First and the Second Councils, as well as those related to ordering and canonizing ecclesial literature [518], page 12. For instance, the Nomocanon by Fotius, considered one the most influential canonical collections of church rules in the Middle Ages.
But it is considered that the same questions, or ones closely related, among them – chronology, the Paschalia, and the determination of current date “since Adam”, the canonization of church rules and books – were at the centre of the First and the Second Councils’ agenda.
This is where we encounter perfect havoc and confusion in the chronology of early Ecclesial history that the mediaeval chronologists were trying to reconstruct. They failed to have done it correctly, and thus the First and Second Ecumenical Councils were placed last amongst the list of known Councils, following the Seventh.
This appears to be the result of a chronological error made as early as the XIII-XIV centuries, when the Byzantine chronologers were attempting to date the Ecumenical Councils. The First and Second Ecumenical Councils were dated as early IX century, and the Ecumenical Councils from the Third to the Seventh were pushed even further back in time, namely, the epoch of the IV-VIII centuries. As a result, the First and the Second Councils had to be put first yet again, but already as two different Councils, separated by a period of 52 years.
NOTE: It is most remarkable that Matthew Vlastar’s Collection of Rules Devised by Holy Fathers, as well as most of other canonical clerical tractates belonging to the Russian and Byzantine tradition of the XIV-XVI centuries, don’t give direct datings of old events as a rule – for instance, none of the Ecumenical Councils are dated there, and none of the local ones, either. It is usually just mentioned that this or the other Council happened in the reign of such-and-such emperor, or how many years had passed between the different Councils.
But such assorted chronological indications don’t suffice for building an even, unbroken chronological scale of events. One gets the impression that the compilation of global chronology was commenced in Byzantine in the XIV-XVI centuries, and never finished, possibly due to the contradictions that led the research into a cul-de-sac. However, this incomplete and raw version of chronology was used as a basis by Scaliger, Petavius and other Western European chronologists who had built their entire chronological edifice thereupon, which is the one the historians still use today, not daring to subject it to in-depth critical analysis.
Bibliography
988. The Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Vols. 1-82; supplementary volumes 1-4. St. Petersburg, Brockhaus and Efron, 1890-1907.
817. Stepanov, N.V. The Calendarian and Chronological Reference Book (for the Solution of Chronographic Time Problems). Moscow, Synodal typography, 1915.
701. The book of Psalms with Appendices. Published in the Great City of Moscow in the Year 7160 [1652 ad], in the Month of October, on the 1st Day. New edition: Moscow, The Vvedenskaya Church of St. Trinity Coreligionist Typography, 1867.
393. Klimishin, I. A. Chronology and the Calendar. Moscow, Nauka, 2nd edition, 1985.
518. Vlastar, Matthew. Collection of Rules Devised by Holy Fathers. Balakhna, P. A. Ovchinnikov, The F. P.Volkov typography, 1908.
704. Ptolemy, Claudius. Almagest or the Mathematical Tractate in Thirteen Volumes. Translated by I. N.Veselovskiy. Moscow, Nauka, Fizmatlit, 1998.
17. The Alphabetic Syntagm of Matthew Vlastar. Translated from Greek by Rev. Nikolai Ilyinsky, a teacher from the Seminary School of Tauris. Simpheropol, 1892. A new edition: Moscow, Galaxy Publications, 1996.
The Paschalia Easter Book does not contain the names of any of its compilers. The only name that is mentioned in the tables is that of Reverend John of Damascus (Johannes Damascenus). The Paschalia contains, among others, a table represented as a pair of human hands. The table allows for a number of Easter calculations with the use of numbers that are mentally placed along finger joints. It bears the inscription: “The Palm of Damascenus”.
Let us mark the fact that the Palm of Damascenus represents a rather ingenuous method of calculation that only makes sense in absence of complete Easter tables, without getting into details. Easter tables give the same data as can be computed on the Hand of Damascenus; this means that this system was developed well before the time of the complete Easter table, that is – before the Nicaean Council. This means that Reverend John of Damascus must have lived before or during the epoch of the Council.
However, Scaliger’s chronology dates the life span of Johannes Damascenus as late VII – early VIII century AD, that is, more than 300 years since the Scaliger’s dating of the Nicaean Council and the canonization of the Paschalia (that allegedly took place in 325 AD). This way, according to Scaliger’s chronology, the method of calculating dates by the Palm of Damascenus was invented when the Easter tables already containing the ready dates have been in existence for 300 years!
Even if we believe for a moment that John of Damascus was born in the late VIII century (when he really lived a lot later), it logically follows that the Paschalia Easter Book was canonized in 700 AD at the earliest. In other words, Scaliger’s datings of the Paschalia’s canonization and the traditional dating of the lifespan of Johannes Damascenus, contradict each other.
EXPLICIT DATING GIVEN BY MATTHEW VLASTAR
It is indeed amazing that Matthew Vlastar’s Collection of Rules Devised by Holy Fathers – the book that every Paschalia researcher refers to – contains an explicit dating of the time the Easter Book was compiled. It is even more amazing that none of the numerous researchers of Vlastar’s text appeared to have noticed it (?!), despite the fact that the date is given directly after the oft-quoted place of Vlastar’s book, about the rules of calculating the Easter date. Moreover, all quoting stops abruptly immediately before the point where Vlastar gives this explicit date.
What could possibly be the matter? Why don’t modern commentators find themselves capable of quoting the rest of Vlastar’s text? We are of the opinion that they attempt to conceal from the reader the fragments of ancient texts that explode the entire edifice of Scaliger’s chronology. We shall quote this part completely:
Matthew Vlastar:
“There are four rules concerning the Easter. The first two are the apostolic rules, and the other two are known from tradition. The first rule is that the Easter should be celebrated after the spring equinox. The second is that is should not be celebrated together with the Judeans. The third: not just after the equinox, but also after the first full moon following the equinox. And the fourth: not just after the full moon, but the first Sunday following the full moon… The current Paschalia was compiled and given to the church by our fathers in full faith that it does not contradict any of the quoted postulates. (This is the place the quoting usually stops, as we have already mentioned – Auth.). They created it the following way: 19 consecutive years were taken starting with the year 6233 since Genesis (= 725 AD – Auth.) and up until the year 6251 (= 743 AD – Auth.), and the date of the first full moon after the spring equinox was looked up for each one of them. The Paschalia makes it obvious that when the Elders were doing it; the equinox fell on the 21st of March” ([518]).
Thus, the Circle for Moon – the foundation of the Paschalia – was devised according to the observations from the years 725-743 AD; hence, the Paschalia couldn’t possibly have been compiled, let alone canonized, before that.
Matthew Vlastar, who lived in the XIV century, hadn’t had any doubts about the Elders having devised the Paschalian cycle of 19 years after 743 AD. He already knew that the astronomical full moons migrated to earlier dates in the Julian calendar at the ratio of 24 hours per about 304 years, and wrote the following:
“If we consider the cycle of 19 years, 304 after the Elders who had devised it – it shall be the 17th, one that started in the year 6537 (=1029 AD – Auth.) – we shall see that the first vernal full moons precede the full moons of the first 19-year cycle by a day… If we consider the other 19-year circle in a similar manner, the one that starts in the year 6842 (=1333 AD), we shall discover that the full moons it gives predate the real ones by yet another day… This is why these two days are added to the Lawful Easter (Passover – Auth.)” ([518]).
As we have demonstrated above – see the “Second Statement” – this consideration of Vlastar’s is fully confirmed by the modern astronomical calculations. Passover full moons really occurred about 2 days later than the real ones in 1333 AD, about 1 day later in 1029 AD, and coincided with them in the second part of the VIII century, which is when they were compiled according to Vlastar - however, this contradicts the consensual chronology.
SUMMING UP THE DATINGS OF THE NICAEAN COUNCIL
The Paschalia could have been compiled in the following timeframe:
- not any earlier than 784 AD by the actual definition of Easter;
- not any earlier than 700 AD by the coincidence of Paschalian and astronomical full moons;
- not any earlier than 700 AD by the Palm of Damascenus;
- not any earlier than 743 AD according to Matthew Vlastar;
Hence, the Paschalia was first compiled earliest around the second half of the VIII century AD. The Paschalia was canonized at the Nicaean Council that took place in the XI-XIV centuries. The Paschalia might well have contained certain astronomical concepts of the VII-XI centuries that had already been a part of the ecclesial tradition by that time.
THE “FIRST AND SECOND” ECUMENICAL COUNCILS
THAT CANONIZED THE PASCHALIA
The Paschalia may have been developed before the Nicaean Council where it had been chosen (out of several versions), and canonized. Obviously, the first complete Easter tables for 532 years were also compiled around that time, and have been included in the ecclesial literature ever since.
The epoch of the Paschalia’s canonization must have also been the time when the beginning of the Great Indiction was devised – the year that the complete Easter table starts with. Since, as we have seen, the Paschalia wasn’t created any earlier than the VIII century, this year could only have been 877 AD – the beginning of the “13th” Indiction – which was really the first and only, becoming referred to as 13th after they started to count the Indictions from the beginning of chronology since Genesis.
One is tempted to look for the traces of the Nicaean Council in the epoch of 877 AD, which was the year the very first Great Indiction commenced, and thus could have some information concerning the Council in the vicinity of this date in Scaliger’s version of history.
It turns out that such traces do exist, and very obvious ones at that. Namely, the so-called “First and Second Ecumenical Councils” (two councils really comprising one) that took place towards the end of the IX century.
According to Scaliger’s version, the year 877 AD coincides with the middle of the reign of the Byzantine Emperor, Basil I of Macedonia (867-886). The Ecumenical Council with the somewhat odd name of the First and Second Ecumenical Councils occurred during his reign. The Council in question is the First Ecumenical Council that took place in the reign of Constantine the Great (also known as Basil I of Macedonia), and the next one must have been the Second Ecumenical council that appears to have occurred shortly afterwards. Let us remind that the Paschalia was canonized at the First Ecumenical Council in Nicaea.
Furthermore, it is assumed that a number of chronological issues were discussed at the First and the Second Councils, as well as those related to ordering and canonizing ecclesial literature [518], page 12. For instance, the Nomocanon by Fotius, considered one the most influential canonical collections of church rules in the Middle Ages.
But it is considered that the same questions, or ones closely related, among them – chronology, the Paschalia, and the determination of current date “since Adam”, the canonization of church rules and books – were at the centre of the First and the Second Councils’ agenda.
This is where we encounter perfect havoc and confusion in the chronology of early Ecclesial history that the mediaeval chronologists were trying to reconstruct. They failed to have done it correctly, and thus the First and Second Ecumenical Councils were placed last amongst the list of known Councils, following the Seventh.
This appears to be the result of a chronological error made as early as the XIII-XIV centuries, when the Byzantine chronologers were attempting to date the Ecumenical Councils. The First and Second Ecumenical Councils were dated as early IX century, and the Ecumenical Councils from the Third to the Seventh were pushed even further back in time, namely, the epoch of the IV-VIII centuries. As a result, the First and the Second Councils had to be put first yet again, but already as two different Councils, separated by a period of 52 years.
NOTE: It is most remarkable that Matthew Vlastar’s Collection of Rules Devised by Holy Fathers, as well as most of other canonical clerical tractates belonging to the Russian and Byzantine tradition of the XIV-XVI centuries, don’t give direct datings of old events as a rule – for instance, none of the Ecumenical Councils are dated there, and none of the local ones, either. It is usually just mentioned that this or the other Council happened in the reign of such-and-such emperor, or how many years had passed between the different Councils.
But such assorted chronological indications don’t suffice for building an even, unbroken chronological scale of events. One gets the impression that the compilation of global chronology was commenced in Byzantine in the XIV-XVI centuries, and never finished, possibly due to the contradictions that led the research into a cul-de-sac. However, this incomplete and raw version of chronology was used as a basis by Scaliger, Petavius and other Western European chronologists who had built their entire chronological edifice thereupon, which is the one the historians still use today, not daring to subject it to in-depth critical analysis.
Bibliography
988. The Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Vols. 1-82; supplementary volumes 1-4. St. Petersburg, Brockhaus and Efron, 1890-1907.
817. Stepanov, N.V. The Calendarian and Chronological Reference Book (for the Solution of Chronographic Time Problems). Moscow, Synodal typography, 1915.
701. The book of Psalms with Appendices. Published in the Great City of Moscow in the Year 7160 [1652 ad], in the Month of October, on the 1st Day. New edition: Moscow, The Vvedenskaya Church of St. Trinity Coreligionist Typography, 1867.
393. Klimishin, I. A. Chronology and the Calendar. Moscow, Nauka, 2nd edition, 1985.
518. Vlastar, Matthew. Collection of Rules Devised by Holy Fathers. Balakhna, P. A. Ovchinnikov, The F. P.Volkov typography, 1908.
704. Ptolemy, Claudius. Almagest or the Mathematical Tractate in Thirteen Volumes. Translated by I. N.Veselovskiy. Moscow, Nauka, Fizmatlit, 1998.
17. The Alphabetic Syntagm of Matthew Vlastar. Translated from Greek by Rev. Nikolai Ilyinsky, a teacher from the Seminary School of Tauris. Simpheropol, 1892. A new edition: Moscow, Galaxy Publications, 1996.
sandokhan- Activ
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Re: Dating the ecumenical council of Nicaea - the Easter Issue
Foarte interesant si pertinent acest articol. I-mi voi aduce si eu propria contributie, pentru a-l face accesibil tuturor romanilor.
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Re: Dating the ecumenical council of Nicaea - the Easter Issue
Daca ai putea...daca ai avea timp...ar fi ceva senzational...dar nu va fi o traducere usoara...
Mai exista ceva ce poti traduce, cea mai mare lovitura pentru stiinta oficiala, bazata pe experimentul Michelson-Morley:
http://www.aquestionoftime.com/michelson.html
http://www.aquestionoftime.com/lorentz.html
Mai exista ceva ce poti traduce, cea mai mare lovitura pentru stiinta oficiala, bazata pe experimentul Michelson-Morley:
http://www.aquestionoftime.com/michelson.html
http://www.aquestionoftime.com/lorentz.html
sandokhan- Activ
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Re: Dating the ecumenical council of Nicaea - the Easter Issue
Despre experimentul MM am deschis si eu un topic dedicat, unde am pus cateva materiale. Am sa le traduc si pe acestea doua si am sa le adaug aici sau in acel topic, decizia iti apartine.
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Re: Dating the ecumenical council of Nicaea - the Easter Issue
Uf! Am terminat. Si ai avut dreptate, nu a fost o traducere usoara! Multi termeni din afara sferei mele de competenta.
- documentul original - EASTER ISSUE
- documentul tradus - Dilema Pastelui
Traducerea probabil suporta corectii, completari, adnotari,... insa nefiind domeniul meu, m-am rezumat doar la a face o traducere cat mai corecta si coerenta, atat literar cat si matematic. Dpmdv un material foarte interesant, care da peste cap multe, multe, multe... Voi continua cu subtitrarea pentru filmuletul de pe youtube.
- documentul original - EASTER ISSUE
- documentul tradus - Dilema Pastelui
Traducerea probabil suporta corectii, completari, adnotari,... insa nefiind domeniul meu, m-am rezumat doar la a face o traducere cat mai corecta si coerenta, atat literar cat si matematic. Dpmdv un material foarte interesant, care da peste cap multe, multe, multe... Voi continua cu subtitrarea pentru filmuletul de pe youtube.
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Re: Dating the ecumenical council of Nicaea - the Easter Issue
Felicitari pentru traducere...poti acum sa prezinti acest subiect oriunde doresti tu...pe orice forum...
sandokhan- Activ
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Re: Dating the ecumenical council of Nicaea - the Easter Issue
Daca ai sa deschizi un alt sir de discutii, o sa fie nevoie de patru mesaje separate, la fel cum am facut cu articolul in limba engleza...e nevoie sa postezi si aici documentul (in afara de http://www.scribd.com/doc/74886953/Problema-Pastelui ).
Acum, cu traducerea facuta de tine (si asa cum se poate vedea, este una de exceptie), avem la dispozitie una dintre cele mai devastatoare lovituri pe care le putem aplica istoriei oficiale (unde noi nu existam pentru un interval de 900 de ani), si nu numai.
Putem deduce repede de tot ca in perioada 300 i.e.n. - 1600 e.n. nu a existat nici o dovada astronomica, stiintifica ca axa de rotatie a pamantului ar fi efectuat o miscare de precesie fata de stelele fixe; vezi si mesajul Hipparchus = Tycho Brahe.
Datarea corecta a Sinodului de la Niceea in anul 876-877, inseamna, de asemenea, si existenta imparatilor Constantin cel Mare si a lui Maxentiu (datare in perioada 312-325 e.n.) in acelasi an in care a avut loc si Conciliul.
PS Sa nu uiti de acele pagini de web cu Michelson si Lorentz...nu sunt voluminoase deloc, si inseamna mult pentru a intelege ca experimentul Michelson-Morley este unul catastrofal, fie si din punct de vedere matematic.
Acum, cu traducerea facuta de tine (si asa cum se poate vedea, este una de exceptie), avem la dispozitie una dintre cele mai devastatoare lovituri pe care le putem aplica istoriei oficiale (unde noi nu existam pentru un interval de 900 de ani), si nu numai.
Putem deduce repede de tot ca in perioada 300 i.e.n. - 1600 e.n. nu a existat nici o dovada astronomica, stiintifica ca axa de rotatie a pamantului ar fi efectuat o miscare de precesie fata de stelele fixe; vezi si mesajul Hipparchus = Tycho Brahe.
Datarea corecta a Sinodului de la Niceea in anul 876-877, inseamna, de asemenea, si existenta imparatilor Constantin cel Mare si a lui Maxentiu (datare in perioada 312-325 e.n.) in acelasi an in care a avut loc si Conciliul.
PS Sa nu uiti de acele pagini de web cu Michelson si Lorentz...nu sunt voluminoase deloc, si inseamna mult pentru a intelege ca experimentul Michelson-Morley este unul catastrofal, fie si din punct de vedere matematic.
sandokhan- Activ
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Re: Dating the ecumenical council of Nicaea - the Easter Issue
Sandokhan, documentul tradus de mine este free for all. Ca de altfel tot ceea ce traduc. Tu sau oricine altcineva poate sa faca ce vrea cu el. Singura conditie (de bun simt zic eu) este sa faca asa cum ii dicteaza propria constiinta. Fara influente externe directe imediate.
Eceasta tema nu ma intereseaza in mod direct, asa ca nu vreu sa ma implic mai mult de atat. Este un subiect care m-a intereseaza tangential, datorita educatiei religioase primite, si pentru ca vreau sa stiu, si mai mult de atat, sa inteleg. Si cam atat!
Ai tu alte subiecte foarte interesante si pertinente dpmdv, care ma intereseaza pe mine in mod direct, si la care i-mi voi aduce contributia personala, dar in timp... sunt implicat in prea multe activitati si nu am decat 2 maini din pacate!
Chiar acum voi posta articolul aici, in trei sectiuni, asa cum mi-ai sugerat. Si voi reveni si cu articolele despre exp. MM si tranf. Lorentz. Acum printre activitatile mele cotidiene, lucrez la traducerea si sincronizarea frame-urilor pt. acel filmulet despre cronologia lui Fomenko.
Eceasta tema nu ma intereseaza in mod direct, asa ca nu vreu sa ma implic mai mult de atat. Este un subiect care m-a intereseaza tangential, datorita educatiei religioase primite, si pentru ca vreau sa stiu, si mai mult de atat, sa inteleg. Si cam atat!
Ai tu alte subiecte foarte interesante si pertinente dpmdv, care ma intereseaza pe mine in mod direct, si la care i-mi voi aduce contributia personala, dar in timp... sunt implicat in prea multe activitati si nu am decat 2 maini din pacate!
Chiar acum voi posta articolul aici, in trei sectiuni, asa cum mi-ai sugerat. Si voi reveni si cu articolele despre exp. MM si tranf. Lorentz. Acum printre activitatile mele cotidiene, lucrez la traducerea si sincronizarea frame-urilor pt. acel filmulet despre cronologia lui Fomenko.
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Re: Dating the ecumenical council of Nicaea - the Easter Issue
DILEMA PAŞTELUI
de Dr. Gleb Nosovsky
de Dr. Gleb Nosovsky
Acest articol provine din următorul volum al seriei “Istoria: Ficţiune sau Ştiinţă”.
Paştile, deasmenea cunoscut ca şi Pasca, Sărbătoarea Învierii, Duminica Învierii sau Ziua Învierii, este cea mai importantă sărbătoare religioasă a Creştinătăţii, situată între sfârşitul lui Martie şi sfârşitul lui Aprilie la Occidentali, şi Începutul lui Aprilie la începutul lui Mai la Creştinii Orientali. Se consideră că Primul Consiliu Ecumenic de la Nicea (Nicea este un oraş în Bithynia, Asia Mică) a elaborat şi aprobat un calendar bisericesc, în anul 325 E.N.. Biserica Creştină a considerat această Carte a Paştelui (în Vest), deasemenea cunoscută ca şi Pascalia (în Est), ca fiind de cea mai mare importanţă de atunci incoace.
Cercetarea făcută de proeminentul matematician Academician Doctor Profesor Anatoly Fromenko şi echipa acestuia (de la Universitatea de Stat din Moscova) asupra Cărţii Paştelui sau Pascalia (pe rit Bizantin), prezentată în această carte, dovedeşte categoric că Consiliul de la Nicea nu a putut avea loc înainte de anul 784 E.N.. Unele întrebări aferente pot apărea: când şi unde a fost născut Isus Hristos, când a fost acesta crucificat? A fost Vechiul Testament elaborat înainte sau după Noul Testament? Căutaţi răspunsurile în seria “Istoria: Ficţiune sau Ştiinţă?”, ISBN 2913621074.
INTRODUCERE
Enciclopedia Britanică îl titularizează pe Joseph Justus Scaliger (1540 - 1609 E.N.) şi discipolul acestuia Dionysius Petavius (1583 – 1652 E.N.) ca fiind fondatorii cronologiei consensuale. Această cronologie se fundamenteaza pe doi piloni – data naşterii lui Isus Hristos şi data Primului Consiliu Ecumenic din Nicea, care de obicei este menţionat ca şi “Consiliul de la Nicea”.Versiunea cronologică a lui Scaliger este bazată în mare măsură pe data zilei de naştere a lui Isus Hristos şi cea a Primului Consiliu Ecumenic de la Nicea, deoarece era în primul rând întocmită ca fiind cea a istoriei bisericeşti. Cronologia seculară a timpurilor antice a fost reprezentată în munca lui ca fiind derivată, și fundamentată pe sincronizarea cu evenimentele bisericeşti.
Vom face aici o expunere detaliată, de ce una din aceste date fundamentale, care este cea a Primului Consiliu Ecumenic din Nicea este categoric greşită.
Metoda principală de cercetare la care ne referim aici, este cea a calculului astronomic. Oricum, înţelegerea problemei nu necesită cunoştinţe profunde de astronomie sau alte articole stiinţifice speciale.
Fondatorul cronologiei, Joseph Justus Scaliger s-a considerat el însuşi un mare matematician. Păcat, dar demonstraţiile sale au fost destul de greşite – de exemplu, el s-a lăudat că a rezolvat clasica problemă „antică” a “Cuadraturii Cercului”, care s-a dovedit ulterior ca fiind nerezolvabilă.
Problemele calendaristice sunt parte a cronologiei. Cronologia a aparţinut paradigmei matematice şi ştiinţifice. Acesta a fost cazul secolelor XVI-XVII, când a fost creată versiunea consensuală a cronologiei de către Scaliger şi Petavius.
De atunci, percepţia cronologiei s-a schimbat, iar în secolul al XVIII, cronologia era deja considerată ca aparţinînd umanităţii. Dar deoarece esenţa acesteia nu poate fi schimbată, ea a rămas o subdiviziune a matematicii aplicate până astăzi.
Despre istorici se presupune că se ocupă ei înşişi cu cronologia. Oricum, fără o educaţie matematică suficientă – şi în cazul studiilor cronologice, suficient înseamnă fundamental – istoricii sunt forţaţi să evite soluţia şi chiar discuţia despre problemele destul de complexe ale cronologiei.
Fiecare ciudăţenie şi contradicţie istorică este ascunsă cu grijă atenţiei publice; în locurile periculoase şi alunecoase istoricii i-au o înfăţişare serioasă, zicând că “totul este defapt în regulă” şi că “î-ţi vor da o explicaţie completă” mai târziu.
CE ŞTIM ASTĂZI DESPRE CONSILIUL DE LA NICEA
Nu există fapte sau acte ale acestui Consiliu care sa fi ajuns până în timpurile noastre, dar istoricii afirmă: “… operele Sfântului Atanasie al Alexandriei, Socrate, Eusebiu de Cezareea, Sozomenus, Theodoritus şi Rufinus conţin destule detalii pentru a avea o bună idee despre Consiliu, împreună cu cele 20 de reguli, iar supravegherea Consiliului... Împăratul (Constantin Cel Mare – Aut.) a ajuns în Nicea pe 4 sau 5 Iulie, iar în ziua următoare Consiliul a fost chemat în sala mare din palatul Împăratului... consiliul a rezolvat problema determinării datei de celebrare a Paştelui... şi a stabilit 20 de reguli... După Consiliu, Împăratul a emis un decret pentru a convinge pe toată lumea să adere la confesiunea proclamată de către consiliu.” [988], tome 41, pages 71-72.S-a presupus asftel că odată cu proclamarea uniunii confesionale Ortodox-Catolice, care s-a despărţit mai târziu, Consiliul de la Nicea a determinat de asemenea metoda prin care ar trebui celebrat Paştile, sau cu alte cuvinte, a creat Cartea Paştelui.
În ciuda faptului că nu a rămas nici un decret original al Consiliului de la Nicea, se zice că Consiliul a emis decretele în pretinsul an 325 E.N, când “metodele actuale de calculare a datelor Paştelui fuseseră deja bine dezvoltate”, și a fost elaborat tabelul cu datele Paştelui “care au fost folosite de secole”. Acesta din urmă este destul de firesc, deoarece “la fiecare 532 de ani, ciclul Paştelui Creştin se repetă de la început... tabelele Pascale pentru fiecare an din cei 532 existau deja”. [817], page 4.
Astfel, calcularea unui nou tabel Pascal de 532 de ani se reduce la o simplă schimbare a celui anterior pentru alţi 532 de ani. Această ordine este încă validă: ultimul Mare Indiction a început în 1941 E.N. şi este versiunea transferată a Marelui Indiction anterior (a anilor 1409-1940), care, la randul lui, derivă din Marele Indiction al anilor 977-1408, etc. Astfel, când trecem la tabelul Pascal modern cu un factor aplicabil divizibil cu 532, ar trebui să obţinem exact acelaşi tabel cum a fost introdus de Consiliul de la Nicea.
Așadar, forma primară a Cărţii Paştelui poate fi reconstruită cu uşurinţă, şi vom arăta cititorilor cum cea mai veche dată posibilă de realizare a Cărţii Paştelui poate fi dedusă din aceasta.
CONSILIUL DE LA NICEA ŞI CARTEA PAŞTELUI
Cartea Paştelui bisericească este compusă din două părţi – o parte statică şi una mobilă. Partea statică a calendarului bisericesc este calendarul normal civil, cunoscut deasemenea ca şi calendarul Iulian, deoarece elaborarea acestuia este adesea legată de numele lui Iulius Cezar. Anul Iulian conţine 12 luni, şi la fiecare 4 ani se adaugă o nouă zi – ziua de 29 Februarie. Asemenea ani se cheamă ani bisecţi.Este posibil ca unii cititori să nu ştie cât de strâns este legat calendarul Iulian cu serviciul divin Creştin. Aşa numitele sărbători statice ale bisericii Creştine sunt toate distribuite pe întreg calendarul Iulian. Le numim statice deoarece ele cad în aceiaşi zi a aceleiaşi luni a calendarului Iulian, în fiecare an.
Partea mobilă a calendarului bisericesc determină datele Duminicii Pascale şi alte câteva sărbători bisericeşti numărate de la Paşti, cum sunt, Înălţarea Domnului, Sfânta Treime, şi începutul Postului Mare al Sfântului Petru. Numărul de săptămâni bisericeşti, de asemenea, aparţine părţii mobile a calendarului bisericesc.
Numărătoarea începe cu Duminica Paştelui; numărul săptămânii este important deoarece el determină ordinea serviciului zilnic. Duminica Paştelui şi sărbătorile al căror proprie dată depind de aceasta, sunt numite sărbători mobile deoarece poziţia acestora în calendarul Iulian variază de la an la an.
Regula Pascală care determină data apariţiei anuale a Paştelui este una destul de complexă şi este foarte strâns relaţionată cu un numar de concepte astronomice pe care le vom acoperi mai jos.
Ne vom referi la combinaţia părţilor statice şi mobile ale Cărţii Paştelui, sau mai simplu, Pascalia, având în vedere că dincolo de regula care determină data corectă a Paştelui, ea conţine de asemenea şi calendarul regulat Iulian care serveşte ca şi cadru pentru care această regulă este validă.
CARTEA PAŞTELUI
Vedem o varietate de tabele voluminoase care determină relaţiile între un mare număr de unităţi calendaristice şi astronomice referitoare la calendarul Iulian. Asemenea unităţi ca cele descrise in Cartea Paştelui, servesc cadrului intern al calendarului Iulian cât şi legăturilor pe care acesta le are cu diferite fenomene astronomice.Între ele, putem găsi cîteva concepte ca Indictionul, Cercul Solar, Cercul Lunar, epacta, baza, cheia alfa, cheia limită, vrutseleto [un vechi calendar manual Slavic, literalmente “Anul în mâna cuiva”], etc.
Unul din tabele ne permite să determinăm ziua celebrării Paştelui pentru orice an dorit. Datele tabelului pot fi accesate prin intermediul aşa numitei chei limită a anului în cauză, una care trebuie determinată în prealabil din alte tabele ale Cărţii Paştelui [701].
Un factor important este acela că, Cartea Paştelui este bazată pe presupunerea că indicii calendaristici utilizaţi pentru calcularea datei Paştelui, reapar în exact acelaşi mod la fiecare 532 ani. Acest ciclu de 532 de ani este numit Marele Indiction în calendarul Iulian, iar el coordonează reapariţia Paştelui, cât şi valorile Indictionului, al Cercului Solar si al celui Lunar, menţionate mai jos.
Tabelele complete ale Paştelui includ o gamă largă de informaţii calendaristice asortate, pentru întregul Mare Indiction de 532 de ani [701]. Începutul “primului” Mare Indiction coincide cu începutul erei Bizantine “de la Adam”, sau “de la Geneză”, iar asta nu este doar o simplă coincidenţă. Ultimul Mare Indiction a început în anul 1941 E.N. şi încă continuă. Cel anterior, a început în 1409 E.N.; cel anterior în 877 E.N., etc., [701], [393].
CICLURILE PAŞTELUI: CERCUL SOLAR ŞI CERCUL LUNAR
Vom începe cu Cercul Lunar, sau “Ciclul lui Methon”, asa cum mai este el numit. Calcularea Paştelui necesită cunoaşterea zilei din Martie sau Aprilie a anului în cauză, când cade Luna Plină.Nu trebuie să observăm cerul sau să facem calcule astronomice de fiecare dată; realizând un tabel a lunii pline pentru lunile Martie şi Aprilie pentru oricare perioadă dată de 19 ani, ar trebui să fie suficient ca referinţă ulterioară. Motivul este că fazele lunii se repetă la fiecare 19 ani în calendarul Iulian, iar reapariţia ciclului rămâne neschimbată pentru secole la rand, – dacă luna plină cade pe 25 Martie într-un an dat, ea va apărea pe data de 25 Martie peste 19 ani, peste 38 (19x2) ani, etc.
Erorile în ciclu vor apărea după 300 de ani, deoarece dacă acoperim 300 de ani în cicluri de 19 ani, luna plină va începe gradual să migreze către locaţia vecină din calendar. Aceiaşi regulă se aplică lunii noi şi tuturor celorlalte faze ale lunii.
În acest fel, dacă marcăm zilele din lunile Martie sau Aprilie în calendarul Iulian pe baza observaţiilor anuale ale fazelor lunii şi care corespund cu acestea, vom descoperi că fazele lunare care cad în aceste zile, se schimbă după un ciclu de 19 ani. Acest cilcu se cheamă Cercul Lunar.
Cartea Paştelui conţine un tabel din care se poate obţine faza lunii pentru orice zi, din orice an, realizat într-o secvenţă de 19 ani şi conţinând 19 celule. Fiecare celulă conţine două numere – numărul de ordine pentru fiecare din aceşti 19 ani, şi data corespondentă a primei apariții a lunii pline după data de 21 Martie.
Acest număr de ordine este valoarea actuală a Cercului, şi este dată o singură definiţie pentru fiecare an. Tabelele Pascale dau valoarea Cercului pentru oricare an al Indictionului curent. Acesta poate fi calculat cu uşurinţă, pentru oricare alt an, deoarece Cercul Lunar se repetă pe el însuşi la fiecare 19 ani.
Versiunea Latină a Cărţii Paştelui utilizează aşa numitul Număr de Aur [393], pagina 75. Este acelaşi ciclu de 19 ani, dar unul care fost început într-un an diferit – şi anume, Ciclul Vestic European al Numerelor de Aur care depăşeşte Cercul Lunar Bizantin şi pe cel Rusesc cu un coeficient egal cu 3, astfel dacă valoarea Cercului pentru un anumit an este egală cu 1, Numărul de Aur corespunzător va fi egal cu 4, vedeţi [393], pagina 76.
Se consideră că aceste cicluri lunare au fost descoperite de astronomul “antic” Grec Methon, în presupusul an 432 I.E.N ([704], page 461). Datarea precisă a descoperirii făcute de Methon in anul 432 Î.E.N. – il face să preceadă existenţa calendarului Iulian cu câteva secole – este o altă greşeală evidentă a cronologiei lui Scalinger.
Cercul Solar, faţă de Cercul Lunar, nu are nici o legătură directă cu fenomenele astronomice, şi în mod special, nu are nimic de a face cu observaţiile solare. Numele, Cercul Solar, ste mai degrabă unul ales arbitrar, deoarece acest ciclu este unul pur calendaristic.
Cercul Solar este un ciclu de 28 de ani a reapariţiei zileleor săptămânii în calendarul Iulian. Să explicăm că zilele săptămânii pot reapărea în datele calendaristice într-o perioadă mai mică de 28 de ani, cum se poate observa studiind calendare care sunt vechi de câţiva ani. Ca o regulă, cineva poate găsi un calendar mai recent de 28 de ani, care coincide cu cel al anului curent. Oricum, numarul minim de ani după care un calendar al oricărui an Iulian se va repeta în întregime, este de 28 de ani.
Cercul Solar pentru un anumit an în Cartea Paştelui este reprezentat ca un număr într-un ciclu de 28. Fiecarui an îi este ataşat un număr într-un ciclu de 28 (de la 1 la 28). Fiecare dintre aceste numere, la rândul lui, corespunde unui foarte bine definit tabel calendaristic al zilelor săptămânii, corespunzând numărului lunii. Ca şi în cazul Cercului Lunar, Cercul Solar este dat direct de tabelele Pascale pentru fiecare an al Indictionului curent de 532 de ani. El poate fi calculat pentru toţi ceilalţi ani, deoarece se repetă la fiecare 28 de ani.
Cercul Solar este utilizat la calcularea Peştelui pentru a descoperi dacă o anumită zi din lună, dintr-un anumit an este o zi de Duminică, ceea ce este important, deoarece Paştele poate avea loc doar Duminica. Aceasta este una din regulile de a determina Paştele.
Deoarece fiecare al patrulea an din calendarul Iulian este un an bisect, ciclul anilor normali şi bisecţi este egal cu 4, fiecare ciclu de 4 ani conţine exact 3 ani normali şi un an bisect, aşa că numărul conţinând cantitatea minimă din amânduă tipurile de ani care este divizibilă cu 7 este 28 (7x4=28). Intradevăr, fiecare perioadă de 28 de ani va conţine 21 (7x3) de ani normali, şi 7 (7x1) ani bisecţi. Un număr mai mic de ani (decât 28) va conţine un număr de ani normali sau bisecţi (sau de amândoi) care nu este divizibil cu 7; prin urmare 28 este numărul ciclului de reapariţie a zilelor săptămânii, sau mărimea Cercului Solar.
Cercul Lunar şi Cercul Solar pot de asemenea fi calculate prin utilizarea următoarei reguli simple. Trebuie să luăm numărul anului din cronologia Bizantină de la Adam, şi să descoperim resturile rezultate din diviziunea acestuia cu 19 şi 28. Aceste resturi reprezintă valorile Cercului Lunar şi Cercului Solar al anului curent. Prin urmare, primul an de la Adam al erei Bizantine are amândouă aceste vaori egale cu 1 (vezi de asemenea [393], pagina 78).
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Re: Dating the ecumenical council of Nicaea - the Easter Issue
CRONOLOGIA VECHIULUI INDICTION
Deoarece am menţionat ciclurile Pascale, să facem câteva observaţii care privesc întreaga cronologie istorică şi nu doar datarea Consiliului de la Nicea. Astăzi noi am devenit atât de obişnuiţi cu aceiaşi constantă a scalei cronologice și a epocii, încât pur şi simplu nu conştientizăm că nu este nimic simplu sau care se explică de la sine, despre această metodă cronoligă. Când utilizăm un număr de 4 cifre pentru a ne referi la anul curent nu suntem conştienţi cu adevărat despre cât de excesivă este utilizarea zilnică a unui număr atât de mare.Ne petrecem aproape 10 ani la şcoală, şi ca rezultat, suntem mai mult sau mai puţin obişnuiţi cu numerele mari. Ele nu ne mai sperie deloc – oricum, acesta nu era cazul în zilele de demult când conceptul de numere mari şi abilitatea de a le scrie erau un privilegiu al oamenilor educaţi. Chiar şi astăzi, adesea omitem primele două cifre când ne referim la ani – zicem ’98 în loc de 1998, ’99 în loc de 1999, etc.
Nu este dificil să realizăm că pe timpul unei ere imuabile, cronologia nu a fost, şi nu ar fi putut fi metoda primordială, originală de a face referire la date. Majoritatea covârşitoare a populaţiei medievale, pur şi simplu nu ar fi fost capabilă să o înţeleagă, iar o cronologie care este înţeleasă doar de un număr mic de oameni educaţi, nu are nici un sens. Mult mai precis, o asemenea metodă ar fi putut fi utilizată într-un context special, în tratate astronomice antice, de exemplu.
Dar utilizarea ei ar fi deja imposibilă în contextul cronicilor, deoarece acestea trebuie sa fie accesibile oricui sau aproape oricui. Diferit faţă de reguli şi observaţii astronomice, evenimentele trecute au fost mereu de interes pentru legiuitori şi guvernatori, ale căror fapte au fost descrise în cronici, împreună cu cele ale predecesorilor lor.
Conducătorii nu trebuiau să posede cunoştinţe speciale – mai mult de atât, în Evul Mediu ei erau ocazional analfabeţi. Datele cronologice trebuiau să fie înţelese de scribii conducătorilor, preoţii din mânăstiri, etc. Aceasta însemnă că modul în care se făcea referire la date în cronici trebuia să corespundă cronologiei de zi cu zi folosită de mase – aşa cum este cazul şi în zilele noastre.
Inabilitatea populaţiei antice şi medievale de a gestiona numere mari poate fi bine ilustrată de istoria valorilor monetare. Este cunoscut că unităţile monetare în Evul Mediu erau mult mai mari decât cele actuale, şi valorile cu care acestea operau erau semnificativ mai mici.
Marea majoritate a populaţiei medievale nu putea gestiona sume mari de bani, datorită incapacităţii acestora de a manevra numere mari. Aşadar, ei nu puteau mânui numere mari nici în cronologie, ceea ce înseamnă că nu puteau utiliza o cronologie bazată pe o eră imuabilă. Asemenea cronologie se putea dezvolta doar la un stadiu destul de ridicat al dezvoltării cunoaşterii umane.
Aparent, regurgerea la cronologia unei ere imuabile a fost, în general, o măsură luată din pură necesitate, când umanitatea a ajuns într-o dilemă reală privitoare la evenimentele trecutului îndepărtat şi cronologia acestora. Ceea ce noi percepem ca natural şi uşor în zilele noastre este rezultatul obişnuinţei – care s-a dezvoltat pe parcursul câtorva secole.
Suntem astfel confruntaţi cu o întrebare foarte importantă despre cum documentele cu adevărat vechi puteau reprezenta datele în formă scrisă – originalele, nu falsurile sau reeditările secolului al XVII-lea.
Răspunsul este foarte bine cunoscut. Una din cele mai frecvent utilizate metode era numărarea anilor de la începutul domniei unui domnitor. Era larg utilizată în vremurile antice şi în Evul Mediu, şi este încă utilizată în Japonia, de exemplu, unde numărul anilor începe cu primul an al domniei Împăratului.
Această modă este de mică importanță, cronologic vorbind dacă anii de domnie ai unui domnitor aşa cum sunt menţionaţi în cronicile antice sunt demult uitaţi – deci înţelegerea unei asemenea date necesită translatarea anilor domniei unui domnitor în cronologia modernă, posibil prin compararea anilor respectivi cu cei ai regilor antici bine cunoscuţi şi bine dataţi. Nu întotdeauna aceasta poate fi făcută în siguranţă şi în mod pozitiv, şi necesită un mare număr de “regi cunoscuţi şi dataţi”.
În ciuda simplicităţii acesteia, metoda de numărare a anilor de la începutul domniei unui rege, conţine un număr de disfuncţionalităţi. De exemplu, fiecare schimbare la domnie, induce o deplasare a numărului anilor, aleatorie la un moment dat. Urmărind o asemenea cronologie, chiar şi numai cu 50-100 de ani în urmă, poate fi deja o treabă complicată, deoarece poate necesita calcularea a câţi ani au trecut de la al treilea an a celui de al doilea rege care la precedat pe ultimul.
Aceasta necesită recolectarea anilor ultimelor două domnii şi secvenţa acestora, care nu poate fi foarte convenabilă în uzul cotidian. Înafară de asta, trebuie considerat şi faptul că pe durata turbulenţelor politice şi a frecventelor schimbări a domnitorilor, o asemenea “cronologie” î-şi încetează complet funcţionarea.
De aceea vechile cronici au o altă metodă de numărare a anilor; una mult mai complicată. Această metodă nu a necesitat cunoaşterea numerelor mari, şi de asemenea nu depinde de numele şi domnia regilor, dar a furnizat o numărare a anilor mult mai fină, fără nici o translatare sau salturi bruşte. Ea a putut de asemenea să servească pentru un timp îndelungat – teoretic, poate fi acoperită o perioadă de aproximativ 8000 de ani.
Această metodă este foarte strâns legată de Cartea Paştelui şi de calendarul Iulian. Să ne referim la ea ca la metoda Indictionului, sau una a numărării anilor Indictionului. Să elaboram această metodă.
Numărul anului nu era dat ca un număr mare, aşa cum se face astăzi, ci mai degrabă ca o secvenţă de 3 numere mici. Aceste numere au propriul lor nume – Indiction, Cercul Solar şi Cercul Lunar.
Fiecare din ele se mărea cu o unitate în fiecare an, dar se returna la valoarea minimă, după ce atingea valoarea maxima specifică. Exact asa este, se întoarce înapoi la 1, şi apoi va porni să creacă din nou cu o unitate, odată cu trecerea fiecărui an.
Astfel, în locul numărării teoretice la infinit a anilor, aşa cum facem astăzi, metoda Indictionului necesită numărarea a trei numere finite ciclice, şi referirea la un an ca la o serie de numere mici, fiecare dintre ele menţinându-se între limitele lui specifice. Acestea sunt:
- Indictionul care creşte de la 1 la 15, iar apoi revine la valoarea 1;
- Cercul Solar care creşte de la 1 la 28 şi apoi revine la valoarea 1;
- Cercul Lunar care creşte de la 1 la 19 si apoi revine la valoarea 1;
Un scrib care a utilizat cronologia Indictionului putea scrie, “Acest eveniment a avut loc în al 14 Indiction, când Cercul Solar era egal cu 16, iar Cercul Lunar era egal cu 19. În anul următor s-a întâmplat altceva în Indictionul 15, cu Cercul Solar egal cu 17, iar Cercul Lunar egal cu 1. La un an după asta s-au întâmplat următoarele, şi au avut loc în primul Indiction, cu Cercul Solar egal cu 18, iar cercul Lunar egal cu 2”. Şi tot aşa mai departe.
Deoarece numerele limită în cronologia Indictionului (15, 28 şi 19) sunt toate mutual indivizibile, oricare din combinaţiile acestora poate reapărea doar după un număr de ani egal cu produsul acestor numere: 7980 = 15 x 18 x 19. Astfel, reapariţia unei date din Indiction poate avea loc doar după 7980 de ani, ceea ce înseamnă că cronologia Indictionului poate furniza o dată perfectă, neechivocă pentru orice an din perioada de timp de 7980 de ani.
Metoda Indictionului este strâns legată de calendarul Iulian, de Cartea Paştelui şi de Paştele Creştin. Se pare că aceasta a fost inventată împreună cu Paştele şi tabele Pascale. Motivul este că două din cele trei cicluri utilizate de datarea folosind cronologia Indictionului, numite Cercul Solar şi Cercul Lunar, au fost rezultate din calendarul Iulian, anii bisecţi ai acestuia, zilele săptămânii şi diviziunea pe luni.
Amândouă ciclurile au o relaţie directă în definirea Paştelui ca fiind duminica de după prima Lună Plină de primăvară. Aşadar, metoda cronologică a Indictionului este în cea mai mare măsură bazată pe indici calendaristici daţi de Cartea Paştelui şi este intrisec dezvoltat din aceasta din urmă.
Este cunoscut că cronologia Indictionului a fost utilizată în textele antice. Se consideră ca a fost utilizată în principal în operele medievale Bizantine, scrise “cu mult timp în urmă”. Dar valorile Indictionului au fost utilizate pentru a face referire la datele festive recente ale secolelor XVII şi chiar XVIII, împreună cu datările “de la Geneză” sau “de la Hristos”.
Datele Indictionice au o altă particularitate în ceea ce priveşte datele care aparţin unei epoci necunoscute. Datele Indictionice în sine, fără calcule sofisticate, nu spun nimic despre cât de departe sunt acestea faţă de epoca contemporană scribului, sau faţă de oricare altă dată, Indictionică sau nu.
Mai mult decât atât, o dată Indictionică îndepărtată nu spune daca ea face referire la un moment din trecut sau din viitor. Datele Indictionice nu sunt deloc aranjate în vre-o ordine. Pentru a înţelege care Indiction il precede pe celălalt, trebuiesc făcute calcule complicate, care sunt aproape imposibile fără un calculator, si unul programabil, pentru a putea începe.
Ca urmare, cronologii medievali care studiau o cronică antică chiar puteau face o greşeală în evaluarea momentului desfăsurării unui eveniment, dacă acesta a avut loc cu mult imp în urmă, sau apaţine unei profeţii din viitorul îndepărtat. Ca rezultat, profeţiile despre viitor care erau destul de frecvente în Evul Mediu, puteau fi amestecate cu evenimente trecute, în timpul copierii ulterioare.
Cel mai probabil, datele Indictionice au fost înlocuite de cronologie încă de la Geneză, cu siguranţă în această eră, în epoca încercărilor de a defini cronologia corectă a vremurilor antice. Aceasta aparent s-a întâmplat în secolele XIV-XV.
Începutul primei ere “globale” trebuie să fi fost calculată utilizând sistemul existent de date Indictionice ca şi fundament, care este bazat pe Cartea Paştelui. Şi anume, a fost calculat anul a cărui Indiction, Cerc Solar şi Cerc Lunar au fost toate egale cu 1. Un asemenea “remarcabil” an se repetă pe el însuşi doar odată la 15 x 28 x 19 = 7980 de ani.
În mod natural, a fost ales cel mai apropiat an din trecut. Acesta s-a întâmplat să fie primul an al erei Ruseşti sau Bizantine, de la Adam sau de la Geneză. Alte calcule bazate pe alte cicluri similare celor ale cronologiei Indictionice puteau da puncte de referinţă iniţiale diferite. Acesta trebuie să fie modul în care a apărut numărul de ere “de la Geneză”.
Aparent, asemenea calcule au fost prima dată realizate în jurul anului 1409, când anteriorul Mare Indiction s-a încheiat, şi a început următorul. Cu câteva decade înainte de 1492, care s-a întâmplat să fie al 7000-lea an, sau ultimul conform “erei” adevărate, calculată de cronologii medievali. Din această cauză Sfârşitul Timpurilor, perceput ca fiind sfârşitul lumii a fost programat pentru anul 1492.
CONSILIUL DE LA NICEA DIN ANUL 325 E.N.
CONTRAZICE CARTEA PAŞTELUI
Există un consens tradiţional de opinii conform cărora calendarul Pascal bisericesc a fost canonizat pe durata primului Consiliu Ecumenic de la Nicea. Pare că nimeni nu este conştient, oricum, că toate acestea contrazic în mod evident datarea făcută de Scaliger despre Consiliul de la Nicea – anul 325 E.N., şi epoca celui de al IV-lea secol în general.CONTRAZICE CARTEA PAŞTELUI
Problema este că, Cartea Paştelui constă dintr-un număr de calendare şi tabele astronomice. Timpul la care acestea au fost realizate poate fi calculat din conţinutul lor. Cu alte cuvinte, Cartea Paştelui poate fi datată pe baza propriului conţinut astronomic. Vedem că rezultatul datării Cărţii Paştelui contrazice datarea Consiliului de la Nicea ca având loc în secolul al IV-lea.
Contradicţia a fost descoperită cu mult timp în urmă, şi a fost menţionată la începutul secolului al XX-lea de către specialiştii în tabelele Pascale. Oricum, până astăzi, nu a fost dată o explicaţie competentă a acestui fenomen.
Care pare a fi problema aici? Răspunsul este că probabil este implicată datarea Consiliului de la Nicea făcută de Scaliger, şi aceasta este extrem de important pentru cronologie. Pe aceasta se bazează cronologia bisericească în cea mai mare măsură, ceea ce este la fel cu a zice că întreaga istorie medievală, a pornit cu pretinsul secol al IV-lea cel puţin.
Datarea eronată (aşa cum înţelegem noi acum) a Consiliului de la Nicea făcută de Scaliger, a fost folosită de asemenea şi la pregătirea reformei celebrului calendar Gregorian. Specialiştii au fost firesc prudenţi în a atinge acest punct sensibil al cronologiei lui Scaliger, fiind perfect conştienţi de importanţa problemei pentru întreaga concepţie a istoriei medievale.
Alterarea datării Consiliului de la Nicea conduce la o completă revizuire a întregii cronologii a lui Scaliger, dintre secolele IV şi XIV. Aparent, acesta este cu siguranţă motivul pentru care toţi specialiştii care au observat discrepanţa serioasă între conţinutul Cărţii Paştelui şi datarea Consiliului de la Nicea, au fost prea timizi în a elibera concluzii, preferând poziţia de tăcere încăpăţânată, ca şi cum problema nu ar fi existat de loc.
REGULILE PENTRU CELEBRAREA PAŞTELUI
Să ne întoarcem la tratatul canonical bisericesc medieval – Colecţia de Reguli Elaborate de Sfinţii Părinţi a lui Matei Vlastar, sau Alfabetul Syntagma, [518], [17]. Această carte destul de voluminoasă reprezintă interpretarea regulilor formulate de Consiliile Eclesiale şi Locale ale Bisericii Ortodoxe.Matei Vlastar este considerat a fi fost un Sfânt Ierarh din Tesalonic, care a scris tratatul în secolul al XIV E.N. [17], pagina 18. Copiile din zilele noastre, sunt făcute după o dată mult mai tărzie, desigur. O mare parte din Colecţia de Reguli Elaborate de Sfinţii Părinţi a lui Matei Vlastar, conţine regulile pentru celebrarea Paştelui. Între alte lucruri, acesta afirmă:
“Regulilor Paştelui li se aplică următoarele două restricţii: nu ar trebui să fie celebrat împreună cu Iudaicii, şi poate fi celebrat doar după echinocţiul de primăvară. Altele două au fost adăugate mai târziu, si anume: se celebrează după prima lună plină de după echinocţiu, dar nu în orice zi – ea ar trebui celebrată în prima Duminică după echinocţiu. Toate aceste restricţii, exceptând-o pe ultima, sunt încă valide (în vremea lui Matei Vlastar – secolul XIV E.N.), deşi de multe ori în zilele noastre noi celebrăm în Duminica care vine mai tărziu. Şi anume, mereu numărăm două zile după Paştele Legal (Paştele Iudeilor sau luna plină) şi terminăm cu Duminica următoare. Aceasta nu se întâmplă din ignoranţă sau din lipsa de întelegere a Bătrânilor, ci datorită deplasării lunii” [518], partea 11, capitolul 7, de asemenea vezi [17].
Să subliniem că citata Colecţia de Reguli Elaborate de Sfinţii Părinţi a lui Matei Vlastar, este un volum canonic bisericesc medieval, care conferă tuturor o mai mare autoritate, deoarece ştim că pînă în secolul XVII E.N., Biserica Ortodoxă a fost foarte meticuloasă cu imuabilitatea literaturii canonice şi a păstrat textele exact aşa cum erau; orice modificare era o problemă complicată şi discutată pe larg, care nu ar fi trecut neobservată.
Aceasta înseamnă că putem spera ca textul lui Matei Vlastar să ne dea o idee destul de precisă despre opiniile deţinute de savanţii Constantinopolului secolului al XIV-lea E.N., în legătură cu tema Paştelui. Aşa cum putem vedea, Matei Vlastar spune următoarele:
Suplimentar faţă de cele două reguli Apostolice ale Paştelui, şi anume:
1) Să nu se celebreze Paştele împreună cu Iudaicii.
2) Să se celebreze Paştele doar după echinocţiul de primăvară. Înţelepţii Consiliului care au introdus Cartea Paştelui, au adăugat două reguli suplimentare, deoarece cele doua anterioare nu defineau destul de explicit ziua Paştelui:
3) Să se celebreze Paştele după prima lună plină într-o anumită primăvară. Asta este, după Paştele Iudeilor adesea denumit şi „Paştele Legal” în literatura bisericească clasică – Paştele celebrat conform legii lui Moise – sau, alternativ, cel al celei de a “14-cea Lună”.
4) Paştele nu poate fi celebrat în orice zi a săptămânii; celebrarea trebuie să aibă loc în prima Duminică după această lună plină, sau Paștele Iudeilor.
A PATRA REGULĂ ÎNCĂLCATĂ
Primele trei reguli din patru sunt încă valide în secolul XIV E.N., conform lui Vlastar, în timp ce a 4 regulă a Duminicii Paştelui ca fiind prima Duminică după luna plină a fost deja încălcată.Mai departe, Matei Vlastar dă o explicație astronomică perfect corectă, de ce regula a fost încălcată. Motivul este că Cercul Lunar (Ciclul lui Methon) nu este complet precis. Există o foarte mică deplasare a datei lunii pline în relaţie cu data statuată de Cercul Lunar de care Înţelepţii Consiliului nu ar fi fost conştienţi. Oricum, în vremea lui Matei Vlastar, se ştia deja despre deplasare. Vlastar era conştient de ea şi i-a dat valoarea corectă – aproape 24 de ore în 300 de ani.
De acea, nu trebuie să treacă mai puţin de două zile între luna plină şi Paşti (conform lui Vlastar, şi aplicabil la vremea lui). Problema este că, calculele pentru Paştele Creştin sunt bazate pe valorile calendaristice ale Cercului Lunar, spre deosebire de datele reale ale lunii pline furnizate de astronomie.
Când, odată cu trecerea timpului, discrepanţa de două zile dintre Cercul Lunar şi reala lună plina avea loc, aceasta nu putea să nu influenţeze distanţa între echinocţiul de primăvară astronomic şi Duminica Paştelui. Dacă distanţa precedentă era egală cu “zero sau mai mult” (așa că Paştele nu putea să cadă înainte de luna plină), ea devenea “egală cu doi sau mai mult”, aşa că Paştele nu putea cădea mai devreme decât cu două zile după luna plină.
Cu toate acestea, cel mai des, numărul de zile care separă luna plină şi Duminica Paştelui, este mai mare de doi, totuși, regulile sunt de aşa natură, încât trebuie aşteptată venirea Paştelui de la luna plină de primăvară până la cea mai apropiată Duminică, aproape trei zile (jumătate de săptămână) în medie, şi mai mult de două zile în majoritatea cazurilor.
Deci, distanţa de două zile care s-a acumulat la vremea lui Vlastar nu s-a manifestat mereu, şi nici o regulă nu s-a încălcat în anii când căteva zile trebuiau să treacă între luna plină şi Paşti.
Cu toate acestea, în anumiţi ani, când distanţa s-a dovedit a fi mai mică de două zile, a patra regulă a Paştelui era încălcată, şi anume, Duminica Paştelui cădea în a doua Duminică după luna plină de primăvară. De exemplu, dacă Paştele Iudeilor cade într-o Sâmbătă, Paştele trebuie celebrat a doua zi, Duminică.
Cu toate acestea, datorită distanţei de două zile acumulate, Cartea Paştelui va defini Paştele Iudeilor calendaristic, ca apărând cu două zile mai târziu, adică Luni; iar Paştele astfel va cădea în Duminica următoare. Cu alte cuvinte: în vremea lui Vlastar, Paştele era celebrat în prima Duminică, la două zile după echinocțiul de primăvară. În acest fel, fiecare regulă din cele patru era urmată, exceptând cazul când a patra regulă trebuia încălcată.
UN CALCUL APROXIMATIV A DATEI CÂND
A FOST CREATĂ CARTEA PAŞTELUI
Astfel, cunoaştem destule, aproape totul, despre Cartea Paştelui. Deci, de ce contextul astronomic al Cărţii Paştelui contrazice datarea lui Scaliger (pretinsul an 325 E.N.) despre Consiliul de la Nicea unde a fost canonizată Cartea Paştelui?A FOST CREATĂ CARTEA PAŞTELUI
Această contradicţie poate fi uşor văzută din aproximarea calculelor.
1) Diferenţa între luna plină Pascală şi cea reală creşte cu o rată de o zi la 300 de ani
2) O diferenţă de două zile se acumulase în vremea lui Vlastar, care este datat aproximativ în anul 1330 E.N..
3) Aşadar, Cartea Paştelui a fost realizată undeva în jurul anului 730 E.N., deoarece 1330 - (300 x 2) = 730.
Se înţelege că, Cartea Paştelui putea fi canonizată de Consiliu doar cândva mai târziu. Dar aceasta nu corespunde deloc cu datarea lui Scaliger a canonizării acesteia, ca având loc în anul 325 E.N..
Să accentuăm, că Matei Vlastar însuşi, nu a văzut nici o contradicţie aici, deoarece el aparent nu este conştient de faptul că Consiliul de la Nicea este datat în pretinsul an 325 E.N.. O ipoteză firească: această datare tradiţională a fost introdusă mult mai târziu decat timpurile lui Vlastar. Cel mai probabil, a fost prima dată calculată în timpul lui Scaliger.
Este de asemenea scris că “În stabilirea datei Paştelui conform cu Cartea Paştelui Ortodoxă trebuie să existe certitudinea că Paştele nu coincide cu Paştele Iudeilor… Tabelul… dă datele pentru celebrarea Paştelui Iudeilor începând cu anul 900 E.N. (?! – Aut.)” [816], pagina 14. De ce data începe cu anul 900 E.N.? Poate fi asta din cauză că, coincidenţele menţionate aici, și-au oprit apariţia în secolul al VIII-lea E.N.?
Să trecem la rezolvarea problemei datării Consiliului de la Nicea, conform Cărţii Paştelui, în aceiaşi manieră în care se confruntau cu aceasta cronologii secolelor XIV-XVI E.N.. Dar, diferit faţă de ei, noi v-om utiliza o teorie astronomică precisă care nu le era disponibilă lor.
DATAREA CĂRŢII PAŞTELUI DUPĂ ACTUALA DEFINIŢIE A PAŞTELUI
Am fost martori că regula – principală – Apostolică a Paştelui necesită necoincidenţa Paştelui Creştin cu cel Iudaic. Mai mult de atât, textele canonice bisericeşti ne dau o definiţie clară şi directă a ce se înţelege prin “Paşti Iudaic” – prima lună plină de primăvară. Să observăm că metoda de calcul a datei Paştelui Iudaic, aşa cum este folosită de tradiţia Iudaică contemporană este cumva diferită.În present, lunile noi pot fi calculate cu precizie extremă, deoarece există o teorie puternică a mişcării lunare. Cu toate acestea, o asemenea precizie nu era necesară scopurilor noastre, aşa că am utilizat formulele clasice Gaussiene, care dau datele apariției lunii pline de primăvară în trecut, mai degabă decât timpul precis al acestui eveniment.
Aceste formule sunt creaţia lui Karl Friedrich Gauss, matematicianul eminent al secolului XIX E.N., iar conform scopului acestora este exact ceea ce avem nevoie – calcularea Paştelui. Le-am utilizat pentru programarea soft-ului care ne-a furnizat datele calendarului Iulian pentru fiecare echinocţiu de primăvară încă de la anul 1, care au fost apoi comparate cu datele Paştelui Ortodox, conform cu Cartea Paştelui. Vom omite detaliile de calcul şi tabelele, deoarece cititorul interesat le poate repeta utilizând algoritmii specificaţi.
Concluziile la care am ajuns:
PRIMA DECLARAŢIE:
Consiliul care a introdus Cartea Paştelui – conform tradiţiei moderne cât şi celei medievale, a fost Consiliul de la Nicea – nu putea avea loc înainte de anul 784 E.N., deoarece acesta a fost anul când data calendaristică pentru Paştele Creştin a încetat să mai coincidă cu luna plină a Paştelui Iudaic, datorită deplasării lente astronomice a fazelor lunare.
Ultima asemenea coincidenţă a apărut în anul 784 E.N., şi după acel an, datele Paştelui Creştin şi ale Paştelui Iudaic s-au îndepărtat pentru totdeauna. Aceasta înseamnă că, Consiliul de la Nicea nu putea canoniza Cartea Paştelui în secolul IV E.N., când Duminica calendaristică a Paştelui ar fi coincis cu Paştele Iudaic de 8 ori – în 316, 319, 323, 343, 347, 367, 374 şi 394 E.N., si l-ar fi precedat cu două zile de 5 ori, ceea ce este strict interzis de a patra regulă a Paştelui, în anii 306 şi 325 E.N. (deja la un an după presupusul Consiliu de la Nicea), precum şi în anii 346, 350 şi 370 E.N..
Astfel, dacă urmăm versiunea cronologică consensuală, va trebui să considerăm celebrarea primului Paşti după Consiliul de la Nicea ca fiind în flagrantă contrazicere cu trei din cele patru reguli pe care Consiliul le-a decretat special pentru această sărbătoare! Pretinsele reguli sunt încălcate chiar în anul următor, după ce Consiliul le-a decretat, şi sunt încă urmate cu zel şi în toate detaliile, la cinci secole(!) dupa acea.
Să reţinem faptul că J.J. Scaliger nu ar fi putut observa acest nonsens evident, pe durata realizării cronologiei consensuale antice, deoarece calcularea adevăratelor date ale lunii pline pentru trecutul îndepărtat nu era o problemă rezolvată în epoca lui.
Absurditatea menţionată mai sus a fost observată mult mai târziu, când nivelul ştiinţei astronomice a devenit satisfăcătoare pentru scopul declarat, dar era deja prea târziu, deoarece versiunea cronologică a lui Scaliger era deja canonizată, întărită şi botezată “ştiinţific”, cu toate corecţiile majore ulterioare interzise.
Ultima editare efectuata de catre sadang in Joi 08 Dec 2011, 13:50, editata de 1 ori
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Re: Dating the ecumenical council of Nicaea - the Easter Issue
DATAREA DUPĂ LUNILE PLINE ALE PAŞTELUI IUDAIC
Am văzut că, conform regulilor bisericeşti, Duminica Paştelui a fost iniţial calculată astronomic ca fiind prima Duminică după prima lună plină de primăvară. Apoi Consiliul de la Nicea a dezvoltat un număr de reguli calendaristice pentru definirea datei Paştelui. De atunci, Paştele a fost un eveniment calendaristic. Nu era necesară observarea cerului pentru a determina data Paştelui, ci se putea face aceasta simplu prin folosirea calendarului.Totuşi, sensul originar astronomic al definiţiei Paştelui, poate fi precis determinat din actualele tabele Pascale. Întradevăr, unele din aceste tabele conţin o listă separată a datelor Paştelui Iudaic, care pot fi utilizate ca un punct de referinţă pentru a defini următoarea Duminică a Paştelui. Această listă – “Cercul Lunar” – conţine 19 date, deoarece s-a estimat că ciclul lunii pline de primăvară se repetă complet după 19 ani.
În acest fel, structura tabelelor Pascale reflectă sensul astronomic al Paştelui, acesta fiind definit ca prima Duminică după prima lună plină de primăvară (Paştele Iudaic). Datele lunii pline a Paştelui Iudaic conform Cărţii Paştelui, diferă considerabil faţă de datele lunii pline din zilele noastre. Ar trebui să ne referim la aceste date din Cartea Paştelui ca fiind datele lunii pline Pascale, pentru a le putea diferenţia faţă de datele lunii pline reale, astronomice.
Totuşi, compilatorii Cărţii Paştelui nu aveau cunoştinţă de aceasta şi au considerat calendarul lor despre lunile pline de primăvară ca fiind perfect precis. Nu acesta este cazul, deşi discrepanţa este una mică, şi necesită trecerea câtorva secole pentru a se manifesta. Adevăratele luni pline de primăvară ale ciclului de 19 ani, migrează uşor spre înapoi în calendarul Iulian, în timp ce cele din tabelele Pascale sunt statice. Asta face ca datele astronomice de apariţie a lunii pline de primăvară sa preceadă datele calendaristice din tabelele Pascale, cu o rata de 24 de ore la fiecare 300 de ani.
Faptul că Consiliul de la Nicea a crezut că valoarea Cercului Lunar Pascal va fi corect pentru totdeauna şi că mereu va corespunde cu valorile lunii pline astronomice, este reflectat în sursele bisericeşti – Matei Vlastar este un bun exemplu. Dar Cercul Lunar corect din punct de vedere astronomic – ciclul de 19 ani al lunii pline de primăvară – trebuie să fie exact ceea ce găsim în Cartea Paştelui. Această simplă considerare permite o datare aproximativă a compilării Cărţii Paştelui. Este suficient să comparăm tabelele Pascale ale lunii pline de primăvară cu tabelele moderne precise ale fazelor lunii din trecut, şi să găsim perioada de timp când acestea au coincis. Astfel am ajuns la concluzia reflectată în următoarea declaraţie.
A DOUA DECLARAŢIE:
O coincidenţă satisfăcătoare a lunii pline a Paştelui Iudaic calendaristic cu luna plină a Paştelui Iudaic astronomic, a existat doar între anii 700 E.N. şi 1000 E.N. (prin care înţelegem apariţia acestora într-un interval de 24 de ore, una faţă de cealaltă). Înainte de aceasta (anul 700 E.N. –n.t.), lunile pline calendaristice mereu aveau loc după Paştele Iudaic, iar după anul 1000 E.N., acestea aveau loc înainte de Paştele Iudaic. Începutul celui de al 13-lea Mare Indiction (anul 877 E.N.) cade în perioada de coincidenţă ideală între lunile pline calendaristice ale Paştelui Iudaic şi cele astronomice.
Aceasta înseamnă că, Cartea Paştelui putea să fi fost compilată doar în perioada cuprinsă între secolele IX şi XI E.N..
Coincidenţă, datarea Consiliului de la Nicea (ca şi Consiliul care a introdus Cartea Paştelui) este posibilă, doar în intervalul de timp dintre secolele VII-XI E.N., cel mai probabil fiind epoca secolelor X-XI E.N., după anul 877 E.N..
Iată de ce. Este de înțeles că Consiliul a introdus Cartea Paștelui pentru a o putea utiliza imediat. Nu ar fi ciudat ca să compilezi un tabel al Paștelui pentru 532 de ani, care să poată fi folosit doar după trecerea a câtorva zeci sau chiar sute de ani? Dar exact asta este ceea ce ne oferă versiunea cronologică a lui Scaliger: anul 325 E.N. este data când Consiliul de la Nicea a canonizat Cartea Paștelui, conform lui Scaliger, cu cel mai apropriat Mare Indiction (ca marcând începutul tabelului) începând peste 20 de ani, mai precis în anul 345 E.N..
Aceasta este foarte neverosimil. Acest lucru poate fi văzut din simplul fapt că, Cartea Paștelui include tabelul complet al datelor de sărbătorire a Paștelui, pentru o perioadă lungă de timp, egală cu cea a Marelui Indiction de 532 de ani, mai mult de atât, după trecerea acestui timp, tabelul poate fi mutat înainte în timp și să acopere următorii 532 de ani.
De aceea, schimbarea tabelului care coincide cu începutul unui nou Mare Indiction este un eveniment extrem de rar, unul care se poate întâmpla doar odată sau de două ori într-un mileniu. Dar ce observăm? Începutul unuia dintre cele mai Mari Indictioane – anul 877 E.N. – coincide cu perioada de timp când colaborarea dintre lunile pline calendaristice și astronomice sunt perfecte!
O ipoteză firească este că anul 877 E.N., a fost exact anul în care Consiliul care a introdus Cartea Paștelui, a decis și începutul Marelui Indiction. Este clar că acest an putea fie să coincidă cu anul Consiliului, fie putea să-l preceadă. De exemplu, acest an ar fi putut fi legat de un anumit eveniment care ar fi fost considerat important (și poate chiar unul antic) de către Înțelepții Consiliului.
NOTĂ: Începutul unuia dintre cel mai Mari Indictioane coincide cu punctul de referință din cronologia Bizantină pentru era de la Adam, sau de la Geneză, astfel cum ulterior s-a făcut referire la acesta. Indictionul corespunzător este considerat a fi fost primul Indiction - punctul inițial față de care toate celelalte Mari Indictioane au fot numărate.
Astfel, observăm că, cronologia de la Adam, care a fost larg utilizată în Evul mediu, este strâns legată de calcularea Paștelui astronomic. Acest lucru este indirect confirmat de faptul că, despre această cronologie se zice că a fost introdusă pe vremea domniei Împăratului Constantin, imediat după Consiliul de la Nicea. Se zice că: “Un loc important în calculele cronologice… este ocupat de două ere Bizantine. Conform primei ere, cronologia a început într-o Sâmbătă, pe data de 1 Septembrie anul 5509 Î.E.N.. Această eră a fost concepută sub domnia Împăratului Constantin (337-361 E.N.)… Din secolul VI, Bizanțul a început utilizarea unei ere diferite, “de la Geneză”, care se presupunea că a apărut pe 1 Martie 5508 Î.E.N.” [393], pagina 38.
Aparent, data la care a avut loc compilarea și canonizarea Cărții Paștelui, a fost mutată înapoi în timp, în versiunea cronologică a lui Scaliger, împreună cu data cronologiei „de la Adam”, acest lucru probabil întțmplându-se după stabilirea anului 877 E.N. ca fiind anul începutului Marelui Indiction.
Așa cum s-a observat mai sus, începutul cronologiei “de la Adam” trebuie să fi fost calculată prin numărarea înapoi în timp, de la o numita dată, a unui anumit număr de Mari Indictioane. Începutul erei trebuie să se fi crezut ca fiind începutul Indictionului, a cărui prim an dă prima valoare a Indictionului. Datorită incomparabilității Marelui Indiction cu ciclul de 15 ani ai unui Indiction normal, această combinație poate apărea doar odată la 7980 de ani: 15 x 532 = 7980.
Astfel, prima dată a fost dedus punctul de referință pentru începutul unuia din Marile Indictioane, iar apoi, după calcule extrem de complexe (pentru acea epocă), a fost găsită data “unicului” Mare Indiction corelată cu valoarea Indictionului. Această dată a fost folosită pentru a indica începutul erei “de la Adam”, ca urmare a unor consideraţii care au fost perfect naturale pentru înțelegerea medievală, cu înclinaţia acesteia de a atribui semnificaţie divină proporţiilor elegante numerice.
Cunoscuta “dată Apocaliptică” care era așteptată în anul 1492 E.N. (anul 7000 de la Adam), și care poartă o “semnificație specială” conform cu unele considerații, trebuie să fi fost calculată într-o manieră asemănătoare, iar toate aceste calcule par să fi fost făcute în secolele XIII-XIV E.N.. Punctul inițial de referință trebuie să fi fost începutul actualului Mare Indiction, care a început în anul 877 E.N. și s-a încheiat în anul 1408 E.N..
DATAREA DUPĂ MÂNA LUI DAMASCHIN
Cartea Paștelui nu conține nici un nume al compilatorilor acesteia. Singurul nume care este menționat în tabele este cel al preotului Ioan Damaschinul. Cartea Paștelui conține, între altele, un tabel reprezentat ca o pereche de mâini umane. Tabelul permite un număr de calcule Pascale prin utilizarea numerelor care sunt mental plasate de-a lungul încheieturii degetelor. Acesta poartă denumirea de: “Palma lui Damaschin”.Să observăm faptul că Palma lui Damaschin reprezintă mai degrabă o metodă ingenioasă de calcul care are sens doar în absența unor tabele complete ale Paștelui, fără a intra în detalii. Tabelele Pascale dau aceleași date cu cele calculate de Mâna lui Damaschin; - înainte de Consiliul de la Nicea. Aceasta înseamnă că Preotul Ioan Damaschinul trebuie să fi trăit înainte sau pe durata epocii Consiliului.
Totuși, cronologia lui Scaliger datează perioada de viață a lui Ioan Damaschinul la sfârșitul secolului VII și începutul secolului VIII E.N., cu mai mult de 300 de ani față de datarea Consiliului de la Nicea făcută de Scaliger, și de canonizarea Cărții Paștelui (care se presupune că ar fi avut loc în anul 325 E.N.). În acest fel, conform cronologiei lui Scaliger, metoda de calculare a datei după Palma lui Damaschin a fost inventată când tabelele Pascale deja conținând datele necesare, erau în existență de 300 de ani!
Chiar dacă credem pentru un moment că Ioan Damaschinul a fost născut la sfârșitul secolului VIII (pe când el a trăit cu mult mai târziu), logic urmează că, Cartea Paștelui a fost canonizată în anul 700 E.N., cel mai devreme. Cu alte cuvinte, datarea lui Scaliger despre canonizarea Cărții Paștelui și datarea tradițională a perioadei de viață a lui Ioan Damaschinul, se contrazic una pe cealaltă.
DATAREA EXPLICITĂ OBȚINUTĂ DE MATEI VLASTAR
Este întradevăr uimitor că, Colecţia de Reguli Elaborate de Sfinţii Părinţi a lui Matei Vlastar – cartea la care fiecare cercetător al Cărții Paștelui face referire – conține o datare explicită a timpului când aceasta a fost compilată. Este chiar mult mai uimitor că nici unul din numeroșii cercetători ale textelor lui Vlastar nu au observat aceasta (?!), în ciuda faptului că data este dată imediat, direct după locul celui mai des citat din cartea lui Vlastar, despre regulile de calculare a datei Paștelui. Mai mult de atât, toate citatele se opresc brusc, imediat înainte de punctul în care Vlastar dă această dată în mod explicit.Care ar putea fi, eventual, problema? De ce comentatorii moderni nu sunt capabili să citeze restul textului lui Vlastar? Noi credem că ei încearcă să ascundă față de cititor, fragmente din textele antice care ar arunca în aer întregul edificiu al cronologiei lui Scaliger. Vom cita această parte complet:
Matei Vlastar:
“Există patru reguli cu privire la Paști. Primele două sunt regulile apostolice, iar celelalte două sunt cunoscute din tradiție. Prima regulă este că Paștele ar trebui celebrat după echinocțiul de primăvară. A doua regulă este că nu ar trebui celebrat împreună cu cel al Iudeilor. A treia: nu chiar după echinocțiu, ci după prima lună plină care urmează echinocțiului. Și a patra: nu imediat după luna plină, ci în prima Duminică care urmează lunii pline… Actuala Carte a Paștelui a fost compilată și dată bisericilor de către părinții noștri, în deplină credință că ea nu contrazice nici unul din citatele postulate. (Aici este locul în care citarea, in mod normal se oprește, așa cum am menționat deja – Aut.). Ei au creat-o în felul următor: 19 ani consecutive au fost luați, începând cu anul 6233 de la Geneză (= 725 E.N. – Aut.) și până în anul 6251 (= 743 E.N. – Aut.), iar data primei luni pline după echinocțiul de primăvară a fost găsită pentru fiecare an în parte. Cartea Paștelui, face evident momentul când Bătrânii au creat-o; la echinocțiul care a căzut pe 21 Martie” ([518]).
Astfel, Cercul Lunar – fundamentul Cărții Paștelui – a fost conceput conform observațiilor dintre anii 725 la 743 E.N.; prin urmare, Cartea Paștelui nu ar fi fost posibil să fie compilată, să nu mai vorbim de canonizată, înainte de această dată.
Matei Vlastar, care a trăit în secolul XIV, nu a avut nici un dubiu despre faptul că Bătrânii au conceput ciclul Pascal de 19 ani după anul 743 E.N.. El știa deja că lunile pline astronomice migrau la date anterioare în calendarul Iulian, cu o rată de 24 de ore la aproximativ 304 ani, și a scris următoarele:
“Dacă considerăm ciclul de 19 ani, 304 ani după ce Bătrânii l-au conceput – acesta ar tebui să fie al 17-lea, care a început în anul 6537 (= 1029 E.N. – Aut.) – noi ar trebui să vedem primele luni pline de primăvară că preced cu o zi lunile pline ale primului ciclu de 19 ani… dacă considerăm un alt ciclu de 19 ani într-o manieră asemănătoare, cel care a pornit în anul 6842 (= 1333 E.N.), vom descoperi că lunile pline le preced pe cele reale cu încă o zi… De aceea aceste două zile sunt adăugate la Paștele Legal (Paștele Iudeilor - Aut.)” ([518]).
Așa precum am demonstrat mai sus – vezi “A Doua Declarație” – această considerație a lui Vlastar este în întregime confirmată de calculele astronomice moderne. Lunile pline ale Paștelui Iudaic au apărut cu adevărat două zile mai târziu decât cele reale în anul 1333 E.N., cu aproximativ 1 zi mai târziu în anul 1029 E.N., și coincid cu acestea în a doua parte a secolului VIII, care este secolul în care au fost compilate, conform lui Vlastar – totuși, aceasta contrazice cronologia consensuală.
REZUMATUL DATĂRILOR CONSILIULUI DE LA NICEA
Cartea Paștelui ar fi putut fi compilată în următoarele intervale de timp:- nu mai devreme de 784 E.N., conform definiției actuale a Paștelui;
- nu mai devreme de 700 E.N. datorită coincidenței lunilor pline Pascale și cele astronomice;
- nu mai devreme de 700 E.N. conform Palmei lui Damaschin;
- nu mai devreme de 743 E.N. conform lui Matei Vlastar;
Prin urmare, Cartea Paștelui a fost prima dată compilată cel mai devreme în jurul celei de a doua jumătăți a secolului VIII E.N.. Aceasta a fost canonizată la Consiliul de la Nicea care a avut loc în secolele XI-XIV. Cartea Paștelui s-ar putea foarte bine să fi conținut anumite concepte astronomice ale secolelor VII-XI care erau deja parte a tradiției bisericești la acel timp.
„PRIMUL ȘI AL DOILEA” CONSILIU ECUMENIC
CARE A CANONIZAT CARTEA PAȘTELUI
Cartea Paștelui ar fi putut fi creată înainte de Consiluil de la Nicea, unde aceasta a fost aleasă (din alte câteva versiuni), și canonizată. Evident, primul tabel Pascal complet de 532 de ani era deja compilat la acea vreme, și de atunci a fost inclus în literatura bisericească.CARE A CANONIZAT CARTEA PAȘTELUI
Epoca canonizării Cărții Paștelui trebuie să fi avut loc deasemenea, în timpul când începutul Marelui Indiction a fost conceput – anul cu care începe tabelul Pascal. Deoarece, așa cum am văzut, Cartea Paștelui nu a fost creată mai devreme de secolul VIII, acest an putea sa fie doar anul 877 E.N. – începutul celui de al “13-lea” Indiction – care a fost întradevăr primul și singurul, începând să se facă referire la el ca și al 13-lea, după ce au început să numere Indictioanele de la începutul cronologiei, de la Geneză.
Cineva ar fi tentat să caute urme ale Consiliului de la Nicea în epoca anilor 877 E.N., care a fost exact anul în care a început primul Mare Indiction, și astfel poate obține ceva informații despre Consiliu, în jurul acestei date în versiunea cronologică a lui Scaliger. Se dovedește că asemenea urme există, și unele foarte evidente. Și anume, așa numitele “Primul și al Doilea Consiliu Ecumenic” (două consilii în realitate cuprinzând unul) care au avut loc spre sfărșitul secolului al IX-lea.
Conform cu versiunea lui Scaliger, anul 877 E.N. coincide cu mijlocul domniei Împăratului Bizantin, Vasile I Macedonianul (867-886). Consiliul Ecumenic cu numele oarecum ciudat de Primul și al Doilea Consiliu Ecumenic au avut loc în timpul domniei lui. Consiliul în cauză este primul Consiliu Ecumenic care a avut loc pe timpul domniei lui Constantin cel Mare (deasemenea cunoscut ca și Vasile I Macedonianul), iar următorul trebuie să fi fost Al Doilea Consiliu Ecumenic care se pare că a avut loc la scurt timp după acea. Să ne amintim că, Cartea Paștelui a fost canonizată la Primul Consiliu Ecumenic de la Nicea.
Mai departe, se presupune că la Primul și al Doilea Consiliu s-au discutat un număr de probleme cronologice, cât si problemele legate de ordinea și canonizarea literaturii bisericești [518], pagina 12. De exemplu, Nomocanonul lui Fotius, considerat unul din cele mai influente colecții canonice de reguli bisericești din Evul Mediu.
Dar se consideră că aceleași întrebări, sau unele strâns legate, între care – cronologia, Cartea Paștelui și determinarea datei curente “de la Adam”, canonizarea regulilor bisericești și a cărților – au fost în centrul agendei Primului și a celui de al Doilea Consiliu.
Acestea sunt vremurile când întâlnim dezordine perfectă și confuzie în cronologia și istoria bisericească timpurie, pe care cronologii medievali au încercat să o reconstruiască. Ei au eșuat să o facă corect, iar astfel Primul și Al Doilea Consiliu Ecumenic au fost plasate ultimele în lista de Consilii cunoscute, urmând cel de al Șaptelea.
Aceasta pare a fi rezultatul unei erori cronologice făcută încă din secolele XIII-XIV, când cronologii Bizantini încercau să dateze Consiliile Ecumenice. Primul și al Doilea Consiliu Ecumenic au fost datate încă din secolul al IX-lea, iar Consiliile Ecumenice de la al Treilea până la al Șaptelea au fost împinse înapoi în timp , și anume în epoca secolelor IV la VIII. Ca rezultat, Primul și al Doilea Consiliu au trebuit să fie puse iar primele, dar deja ca două Consilii diferite, saparate de o perioadă de 52 de ani.
NOTĂ: Este cel mai remarcabil lucru, că Colecţia de Reguli Elaborate de Sfinţii Părinţi a lui Matei Vlastar, cât și cele mai multe din tratatele canonice bisericești aparținând tradiției Ruse și Bizantine a secolelor XIV-XVI, nu dau datarea directă a vechilor evenimente ca și regulă – de exemplu, nici unul din Consiliile Ecumenice nu sunt datate in acestea, și nici cele locale. În mod normal, este doar menționat că unul sau alt Consiliu a avut loc sub domnia unuia, sau altui Împărat, sau câți ani au trecut între diferite Consilii.
Dar astfel de indicații parțiale cronologice, nu sunt suficiente pentru construirea unei cronologii exacte și neintrerupte a evenimentelor. Cineva poate avea impresia că, compilarea cronologiei globale a fost începută în Bizanț, în secolele XIV-XVI. Totuși, această versiune incompletă și brută a cronologiei a fost utilizată ca bază epntru cronologia lui Scaliger, Petavius și alți cronologi din vestul Europei, care si-au construit întregul lor edificiu cronologic pe aceasta, și care este cea pe care istoricii o folosesc încă astăzi, neîndrăznind să o supună unei analize critice în profunzime.
Bibliografie
988 - The Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Vols. 1-82; supplementary volumes 1-4. St. Petersburg, Brockhaus and Efron, 1890-1907.
817 - Stepanov, N.V. The Calendarian and Chronological Reference Book (for the Solution of Chronographic Time Problems). Moscow, Synodal typography, 1915.
701 - The book of Psalms with Appendices. Published in the Great City of Moscow in the Year 7160 [1652 ad], in the Month of October, on the 1st Day. New edition: Moscow, The Vvedenskaya Church of St. Trinity Coreligionist Typography, 1867.
393 - Klimishin, I. A. Chronology and the Calendar. Moscow, Nauka, 2nd edition, 1985.
518 - Vlastar, Matthew. Collection of Rules Devised by Holy Fathers. Balakhna, P. A. Ovchinnikov, The F. P.Volkov typography, 1908.
704 - Ptolemy, Claudius. Almagest or the Mathematical Tractate in Thirteen Volumes. Translated by I. N.Veselovskiy. Moscow, Nauka, Fizmatlit, 1998.
17 - The Alphabetic Syntagm of Matthew Vlastar. Translated from Greek by Rev. Nikolai Ilyinsky, a teacher from the Seminary School of Tauris. Simpheropol, 1892. A new edition: Moscow, Galaxy Publications, 1996.
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Re: Dating the ecumenical council of Nicaea - the Easter Issue
Asa, pt. cei care vor sa stie, evreii au preluat Pastele, inca de pe vremea cand erau in Egipt.
Egiptenii au inventat aceasta sarbatoare si nu stiu exact ce semnificatie avea la ei.. Ce sau pe cine sacrificau. In nici un caz boul sau pisica, ca erau sfinti, precum vaca la indieni. (englezii sacrificau pana acum cateva secole in fiecare duminica pisici sau vrajitoare, le ardeau pe rug si era mare sarbatoare in jurul focului).
In prezent la crestini a fost legata de crucificarea si sacrificarea de catre stramosii nostri romani a lui Iisus. Si culmea, tot romanii au impus ca mare sarbatoare aceasta mareata fapta. Cand au impus, acesta e subiectul topicului. Dar se va remarca ca doar prin aceasta difera religia noua crestina de vechea iudaica. Cu totii avem acelasi Dumnezeu. Sfintii nu conteaza.
Omul are nevoie de multe sarbatori pe an, sa se dea la dezmat, sa bea pana crapa. (arabii nefiind bautori, nu tin pastele si au mai putine sarbatori).
Sa nu fie chef in fiecare zi, stapanii vechi si moderni au mai rastrans aceasta libertate si au declarat sarbatorile ca zile sfinte.. Cand e nevoie intens la munca campului, sarbatorile si nuntile sunt interzise.
Se mai zice ca a fost nevoie de a impune si un post sfant prelungit exact atunci se iese din iarna si nu mai sunt alimente in camara. Primavara apar mieii si gainile incep sa faca oua, apar verdeturile...Si daca se mai gaseste ceva vin rosu bine pitit, se zice ca se bea sangele Domnului.
Egiptenii au inventat aceasta sarbatoare si nu stiu exact ce semnificatie avea la ei.. Ce sau pe cine sacrificau. In nici un caz boul sau pisica, ca erau sfinti, precum vaca la indieni. (englezii sacrificau pana acum cateva secole in fiecare duminica pisici sau vrajitoare, le ardeau pe rug si era mare sarbatoare in jurul focului).
In prezent la crestini a fost legata de crucificarea si sacrificarea de catre stramosii nostri romani a lui Iisus. Si culmea, tot romanii au impus ca mare sarbatoare aceasta mareata fapta. Cand au impus, acesta e subiectul topicului. Dar se va remarca ca doar prin aceasta difera religia noua crestina de vechea iudaica. Cu totii avem acelasi Dumnezeu. Sfintii nu conteaza.
Omul are nevoie de multe sarbatori pe an, sa se dea la dezmat, sa bea pana crapa. (arabii nefiind bautori, nu tin pastele si au mai putine sarbatori).
Sa nu fie chef in fiecare zi, stapanii vechi si moderni au mai rastrans aceasta libertate si au declarat sarbatorile ca zile sfinte.. Cand e nevoie intens la munca campului, sarbatorile si nuntile sunt interzise.
Se mai zice ca a fost nevoie de a impune si un post sfant prelungit exact atunci se iese din iarna si nu mai sunt alimente in camara. Primavara apar mieii si gainile incep sa faca oua, apar verdeturile...Si daca se mai gaseste ceva vin rosu bine pitit, se zice ca se bea sangele Domnului.
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Obiective curente : 0)-Fondator "Asociatia Fostilor Cercetatori Stiintifici".
1)-Stiinta camuflata in bascalie pentru tonti. Imi perfectionez stilul bascalios.
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Re: Dating the ecumenical council of Nicaea - the Easter Issue
Istoria: Stiinta sau Fictiune? - acum si cu subtitrare in limba romana.
Foarte interesanta aceasta serie de filme. Bineinteles si cartile care stau in spatele lor. Pentru cei care doresc sa-si imbunatateasca cultura generala aceasta serie de filme este o necesitate. Sunt convins ca multor academicieni, istorici, arheologi (ma refer la cei cu diploma doar si fara daruire) le sta in gat aceasta serie. Sa le fie de bine!
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05.06.2012 - Actualizat link-ul pentru fisierul video!
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